Chapter 10 ~ Global Nutrition, Starvation, and Malnutrition

Chapter Overview

• Introduction
• Agriculture and Environmental Factors
• Understanding Nutrition
• Food Security, Malnutrition, Starvation
• Strategies to Address Nutrition Challenges
• Chapter Summary

Introduction

Agriculture was probably first practiced in the Fertile Crescent, a region of southwestern Asia that includes parts of what are now Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. Similar developments likely occurred at about the same time in China, although the archaeological evidence is less clear. Other cultures discovered the benefits of agriculture later through the domestication of local species of plants and animals (for instance, in parts of Central America, western South America, and New Guinea). However, in other regions, domesticated species were mostly imported from elsewhere, as occurred in Australia, Europe, and North America.

Agriculture and Environmental Factors

Domesticated Plants

Almost all of the valuable agricultural crops have been domesticated. Domestication refers to the progressive modification of crops through the selective breeding of cultivated races (or cultivars), which are now genetically, anatomically, and physiologically different from their wild ancestors. Crop plants have been selectively bred to increase their yield and response to management practices and to enhance their taste.

Most crop plants are grown as food, while others are fiber sources, fuel, or medicine. Important domesticated food plants include the following: small grains, legumes, sweet fruits, vegetable fruits, roots and tubers, vegetables, edible oils, sugar crops, herbs and spices, beverages, and recreational drugs. Domesticated plants—cotton, flax, and hemp—cultivated as sources of fiber can manufacture thread, woven textiles, rope, and paper. A few plants are grown for producing bioenergy, such as maize, sugar cane, and other carbohydrate-rich crops that are fermented to manufacture industrial ethanol used to power motor vehicles. Other uses for crops are as sources of rubber, chewing gum, and dyes, or for medicinal purposes and other relatively minor uses.

The plant parts used for food include seeds (beans, wheat, and other grains and pulses), flowers (broccoli), fruits (melons, grapes, tomato), leaves (lettuce, cabbage), stems (asparagus, celery), roots (carrot, beetroot), tubers (potato), bulbs (onion), and other underground tissues. In many cases, the edible parts are tissues that evolved to store energy for the plant, such as swollen leaves, stems, and tubers. In other cases, the edible parts are energy-rich tissues involved in sexual reproduction, such as fruits and seeds. An essential aspect of the domestication process is the selective breeding of crops to exaggerate their desirable traits, which usually results in cultivars that are very different from their wild ancestors.

There is a rich diversity of crop species. However, the inventory of cultivated plants is only a tiny fraction of the species potentially useful as foods or for other purposes that have not yet been investigated for their usefulness. Only a tiny fraction of the 250,000 species of vascular plants have been investigated for their usefulness. Overall, people eat several thousand species of plants, of which about 200 have been domesticated. Of these, only 12 species account for about 80% of global food production (Diamond, 1999).

The cultivation of crops is a critical economic activity. Figure 10.3 shows overall crop production across the United States in 2017.

Domesticated Animals

Domesticated animals raised in agricultural settings primarily as sources of food are livestock. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the United States has the largest fed cattle industry and is the largest beef producer in the world. The United States is the third-largest global producer and consumer of pork after China and the European Union. The USDA provides statistical data on vital livestock in the United States: cattle, hogs, chicken, sheep, lamb, and mutton. In addition to livestock, commodities are also significant to the economy. According to the Louisiana Department of Agriculture and Forestry, the top 10 commodities in Louisiana are soybeans, beef cattle, aquaculture, feed grains, horses, sugarcane, forestry, poultry, rice, and marine fisheries. As mentioned in chapter 1, several distinct management practices in agriculture benefit the commodities.

Management Systems

Various management practices and systems apply to cultivating any crop plant (or livestock). The most intensive systems may involve cultivating a monoculture (only one crop species) using a series of such practices as tilling the soil, planting, applying fertilizer and pesticide, and harvesting ripe crops. Intensive agricultural systems are typically used on relatively large farms that rely on specialized, fossil-fueled machinery (known as mechanization). Intensive systems may also be used on smaller farms to achieve higher production on a limited area of land.

Using intensive agricultural systems is common in relatively developed countries, such as Canada and the United States. It also occurs in plantation-style agriculture in less-developed countries, where commodities are primarily grown for an export market. In contrast, subsistence farming, as commonly practiced by impoverished communities in less-developed countries, involves little or no use of fertilizer or pesticide and no mechanization. So-called organic agricultural systems in developed countries also abstain from synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Intensive management systems vary greatly among crop species and regions, and it is far beyond the scope of this chapter to describe such systems in detail.

Environmental Impacts of Agriculture

Pollution caused by agriculture is a frequent discussion because of the runoff of agricultural chemicals, its impact on aquatic ecosystems, and factors covered in previous chapters: soil erosion and loss of organic matter (chapter 9), biodiversity and habitat loss (chapter 3), impact on fishing and tourism industries along coastal regions (chapter 8), and Louisiana’s vulnerability to climate change (chapter 8).

Agricultural Chemicals

The most notable agricultural pollutant of groundwater is nitrate, which originates from manure applications to farmland and fertilizer. This problem occurs because the nitrate ion (NO₃^–) drains readily with water that percolates through the soil to groundwater. Nitrate is highly soluble in water and not retained by ion-exchange reactions in soil. Nitrate pollution is a hazard for people who use groundwater as a source of drinking water. Although nitrate is not very toxic, nitrate-to-nitrite conversion occurs in the human gut by microbial organisms, including bacteria. When nitrite is absorbed into the blood, it strongly binds with hemoglobin (forming a compound known as methemoglobin), thereby reducing the capacity to carry oxygen. Children are especially vulnerable to this effect; the so-called blue-baby syndrome refers to oxygen-starved infants poisoned by nitrate in their drinking water or food.

Nitrate pollution of groundwater is a widespread problem, since groundwater and surface water contamination stems from using agricultural pesticides. Some commonly used pesticides are highly leachable in soil, such as atrazine, dinoseb, metolachlor, metribuzin, and simazine. Once a pesticide reaches groundwater, it may persist for a long time. For example, atrazine remains in the environment for at least five years.

Impact of Agriculture on Aquatic Ecosystems

Too much decaying organic matter in water is a pollutant because it removes oxygen from water, which can kill fish, shellfish, and aquatic insects. The amount of oxygen used by aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) bacterial decomposition of organic matter is called biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The primary source of dead organic matter in many natural waters is sewage, whereas grass and leaves are minor sources of dead organic matter. Excessive plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), are pollutants closely related to oxygen-demanding waste. Aquatic plants require about 15 nutrients for growth, most of which are plentiful in water. Nitrogen and phosphorus are limiting nutrients, however, because they are usually present in water at low concentrations, restricting the total amount of plant growth. Their limiting ability explains why N and P are prominent ingredients in most fertilizers. High concentrations of N and P from human sources (mostly agricultural and urban runoff, including fertilizer, sewage, and phosphorus-based detergent) can cause cultural eutrophication, which leads to the rapid growth of aquatic producers, such as algae. Thick mats of floating algae or rooted plants lead to water pollution, damaging the ecosystem by clogging fish gills and blocking sunlight. A small percentage of algal species produce toxins that can kill animals, including humans.

Exponential growths of these algae are called harmful algal blooms. When the prolific algal layer dies, it becomes oxygen-demanding waste, resulting in extremely low O₂ concentrations in the water (< 2 ppm O₂), a condition called hypoxia. This results in a dead zone because it causes death from asphyxiation to organisms unable to leave that environment. In North America, Europe, and Asia, an estimated 50% of lakes are negatively impacted by cultural eutrophication. In addition, the size and number of marine hypoxic zones have grown dramatically over the past 50 years, such as an enormous dead zone located offshore Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. Cultural eutrophication and hypoxia are difficult to combat because they are caused primarily by nonpoint source pollution. Nonpoint source pollution is difficult to regulate and remove from wastewater. Figure 10.4 shows an example of the Dead Zone in the Gulf of Mexico as of 2023.

Organic Agriculture and Soil Fertility

In organic agriculture, crops are grown using relatively “natural” methods of maintaining soil fertility without chemical fertilizers, and pest-control methods do not involve synthetic pesticides. A central focus of organic agriculture is the maintenance of soil fertility by enhancing natural pathways of nutrient cycling and soil tilth. In natural ecosystems, microorganisms continuously recycle inorganic nutrients (such as nitrate, ammonium, and phosphate) from dead organic matter, most of which is plant litter. The microbes metabolize the complex organic forms of nutrients, converting them to simple inorganic molecules. The fixation of atmospheric N₂ by microorganisms is also a critical source of nitrogen input in organic agriculture. Overall, the release of inorganic nutrients is typically slow enough that they can be effectively taken up by crop plants, so relatively little is lost to groundwater or surface water.

Organic farmers enhance the organic content and cultivate soil fertility in three ways by adding:

• Livestock manure and composted urine to the soil because these materials contain beneficial organic matter and nutrients.
• Green manure, which is living plant biomass incorporated into the soil by plowing.
• Compost, or partially decomposed and humified organic material, to the soil.

Growing plants take up the same inorganic nutrient forms (such as nitrate, ammonium, and phosphate) from the soil, regardless of whether they are supplied by organic practices or with manufactured fertilizer. The primary difference is in the role of ecological processes versus manufacturing—organic methods rely on renewable energy sources and materials rather than non-renewable ones. Overall, the longer-term effects on soil fertility and tilth using organic practices are much less damaging than those associated with conventional agriculture.

Pest Management

All agricultural ecosystems have problems with pests. In conventional agriculture, these problems are usually managed using pesticides. Although pesticides can reduce the effects of pests on crop yield, their use may cause environmental damage. Instead of synthetic pesticides, organic farmers rely on other methods of pest management, such as using crop varieties that are resistant to pests and diseases; using biological pest management by introducing or enhancing populations of natural predators, parasites, or diseases; changing habitat conditions to make them less suitable for pests; using control tactics only, when necessary, by undertaking careful monitoring of pest abundance; and using pesticides based on natural products.

Organic farmers, as well as the consumers of their produce, must be relatively tolerant of some of the damage and lower yields that pests may cause. For example, most consumers of organic produce are satisfied with apples that have some blemishes caused by the scab fungus (Venturia inaequalis), an aesthetic that does not affect the nutritional quality or safety of the apples. In conventional agriculture, this cosmetic damage is managed with fungicide application to provide consumers with blemish-free apples, since they have been conditioned to expect blemish-free food.

Antibiotics, Growth-Relating Compounds, and Transgenic Crops

Intensive livestock rearing may involve keeping animals together under crowded conditions in poorly ventilated environments, often continuously exposed to their manure and urine. Animals housed in unsanitary conditions are vulnerable to infection, which may retard their growth or kill them. In conventional agriculture, this problem is managed partly through antibiotic use, which may be given to sick animals or as a prophylactic treatment by adding them continuously to the feed of an entire herd.

Ultimately, humans are exposed to small antibiotic residues when they eat the products of these animals. Although this low-level exposure has not been conclusively demonstrated to pose an unacceptable human health risk, the issue is controversial. One potential problem lies in the emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens, resulting in antibiotics becoming less effective for medical purposes.

Organic farmers might use antibiotics to treat an infection in a particular sick animal, but farmers do not continuously add antibiotics to livestock feed. In addition, many raise their animals under more open and sanitary conditions than practices used in conventional agriculture. Animals that are relatively free of the stresses of crowding and constant exposure to manure are more resistant to diseases and have less need for antibiotic treatment.

In addition, some industrial systems for raising livestock use synthetic hormones, such as bovine growth hormone, to increase the growth rate of animals or the production of milk. Inevitably, these hormones persist as trace contaminants in animal products. Humans consume these animal products. Although no risk to humans has been conclusively demonstrated from these exposures, there is controversy about the potential effects. Lastly, organic farmers do not use synthetic growth hormones to enhance the productivity of their livestock.

Another recent innovation in agriculture is the use of so-called transgenic crops. Transgenic crops are genetically modified by introducing genetic material (DNA or RNA) from another species. This genetic modification is a type of bioengineering that intends to confer some advantage to the crop that was not developed through selective breeding. Selective breeding relies only on the intrinsic genetic information (the genome) that is naturally present in the species. Varieties of several critical crops are transgenic and have been patented by the private companies that developed and marketed them. Transgenic crops are increasingly being grown in conventional agriculture in the United States, but the crops are generally not used in organic agriculture.

Organic vs. Conventional

Many people believe that organically grown food is safer or more nutritious than food grown by conventional agriculture because non-organic foods may have trace contamination with antibiotics, growth hormones, and pesticides, and the potential human health risks. This topic is highly controversial, but it is important to understand that scientific research has not conclusively demonstrated that organically grown foods are generally safer or more nutritious than those from conventional agriculture.

The most important benefits of organic agriculture are the reduced use of non-renewable sources of energy and materials, improved agroecosystem health, and enhanced sustainability of food production.

There are benefits and drawbacks to using organic agriculture over conventional agriculture methods. One benefit to organic agricultural methods is the decreased soil erosion and increased soil biodiversity. Another benefit is a decrease in direct carbon dioxide emissions as compared to conventional agriculture (Figure 10.5; Azarbad, 2022). Drawbacks include a decreased yield production per hectare, leading to increased land usage compared to conventional agriculture. Another drawback is an increase in indirect carbon dioxide emissions. Organic practices better sustain soil quality, energy and material resources, and ecological integrity compared with more intensive agricultural systems.

Figure 10.5. This table compares organic and conventional agriculture production yield, land usage, and carbon dioxide emissions. An upward arrow indicates an increase in the observed factors in the table. A downward arrow indicates a decrease in the observed factors (Azarbad, 2022).

However, it appears that organic agricultural systems will not become more widely adopted until several socioeconomic conditions change. First, more consumers must be willing to pay the higher costs of organically grown food and to accept a lower aesthetic quality in certain products. Second, vested agricultural interests in business, government, and universities must become more sympathetic to the goals and softer environmental impact of organic agriculture. These institutions must support more research to advance organic agriculture and promote its use. Finally, the practitioners of conventional agricultural systems must deal more directly with the environmental damage that is associated with their activities, especially the use of manufactured pesticides and fertilizers. If these conditions are attained, it would probably eliminate or even reverse the existing price differential between food produced by organic and conventional agricultural systems.

Understanding Nutrition

Nutrition and Nutrients

Nutrition refers to a balanced consumption of essential nutrients. Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. Nutrients must be obtained from our diet, since the human body does not synthesize or produce them. Nutrients have one or more of three functions: they provide energy, contribute to body structure, and/or regulate chemical processes in the body. These functions allow humans to detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce. Nutrients are needed in large amounts (macronutrients), while other essential nutrients are required in the body in lesser amounts (micronutrients) for the body to function and maintain overall health. Foods also contain non-nutrients that may be harmful (such as natural toxins common in plant foods and additives like some dyes and preservatives) or beneficial (such as antioxidants).

There are three classes of macronutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. These three cell components are biological macromolecules, which are large molecules necessary for life built from smaller organic molecules. The smaller organic molecules are single subunits called monomers. Monomers serve as building blocks by combining covalent bonds to form larger molecules known as polymers. Carbohydrates and proteins consist of monomer subunits that can be metabolically processed into cellular energy. Lipids lack monomers but still undergo metabolic processing into cellular energy. The chemical energy from macronutrients comes from their covalent bonds. The chemical energy is converted into cellular energy that is then utilized to perform work, allowing our bodies to conduct their normal functions.

A unit of measurement of food energy is the calorie. Nutrition food labels show the number of calories in a food item. On the label, a calorie is equivalent to each calorie multiplied by one thousand. A kilocalorie (one thousand calories, denoted with a small kcal) is synonymous with the “Calorie” (with a capital “C”) on nutrition food labels.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two forms based on their chemical structure: simple carbohydrates, often called simple sugars, and complex carbohydrates.

Simple carbohydrates consist of one or two monomers. Glucose is a simple carbohydrate with one monomer. Glucose is the type of sugar that circulates in your bloodstream. Sucrose is a simple carbohydrate with two monomers. Sucrose is table sugar consumed in many dishes.

Complex carbohydrates are long chains of simple sugars that can be unbranched or branched. During digestion, the body breaks down digestible complex carbohydrates into simple sugars, mainly glucose. Glucose is transported to all our cells for storage and then used to make energy or build macromolecules. Fiber (cellulose) is also a complex carbohydrate, but it cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes in the human intestine. As a result, it passes through the digestive tract undigested unless the bacteria that inhabit the colon or large intestine break it down.

One gram of digestible carbohydrates yields four kilocalories of energy for the cells in the body to perform work. In addition to providing energy and serving as building blocks for larger macromolecules, carbohydrates are essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system, heart, and kidneys. As mentioned, glucose can be stored in the body for future use. In humans, the storage molecule of carbohydrates is called glycogen. In plants, the storage molecule is starch. Glycogen and starch are complex carbohydrates.

Proteins

Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most diverse range of functions of all macromolecules. Proteins may be structural, regulatory, contractile, or protective. They may serve in transport, storage, or membranes. They may be toxins or enzymes. Each cell in a living system may contain thousands of proteins, each with a unique function. Their structures, like their functions, vary greatly. They are all, however, amino acid polymers arranged in a linear sequence. Proteins are composed of chains of monomers called amino acids, which are composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Scientists estimate that more than 100,000 different proteins exist within the human body. Proteins provide four kilocalories of energy per gram.

Lipids

Lipids are also a family of molecules: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. But lipids are hydrophobic, or insoluble in water. This water insolubility, or lack of dissolving in water, is a primary distinction for lipids from the other macronutrients. The three main types of lipids are triglycerides (triacylglycerols), phospholipids, and sterols. The main job of lipids is to provide or store energy. Lipids provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates (nine kilocalories per gram of lipids versus four kilocalories per gram of carbohydrates). In addition to energy storage, lipids are the main component of cell membranes, surround and protect organs (in fat-storing tissues), provide insulation to aid in temperature regulation, and many other functions in the body.

Water

Water is also a macronutrient, but it does not yield calories. In the human body, water must exist in large quantities. More than 60 percent of your total body weight is water. Without it, nothing could be transported in or out of the body, chemical reactions would not occur, organs would not be cushioned, and body temperature would fluctuate widely. On average, an adult consumes just over two liters of water per day from food and drink combined. Since water is critical for life’s basic processes, the amount of water input and output is important for human health.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are nutrients required in lesser amounts but are still essential for performing bodily functions. Micronutrients include all the essential minerals and vitamins. There are sixteen essential minerals and thirteen vitamins. Minerals are solid inorganic substances that form crystals and are classified depending on how much an individual needs. The classifications are trace minerals and macrominerals. Trace minerals (chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc) are required in a few milligrams or less. Macrominerals are required in hundreds of milligrams, such as calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulfur. Table 10.1 lists the sixteen essential minerals and their functions. Many minerals are critical for enzyme function. Other minerals maintain fluid balance, build bone tissue, synthesize hormones, transmit nerve impulses, contract and relax muscles, and protect against harmful free radicals in the body that can cause health problems such as cancer.

Table 10.1. Essential Minerals and Their Major Functions. This table was modified from OpenStax’s Anatomy and Physiology 2e.

Minerals	Major Functions
Trace minerals
Chromium	Assists insulin in glucose metabolism
Copper	Coenzyme, iron metabolism
Fluoride	Bone and teeth health maintenance, tooth decay prevention
Iodine	Thyroid hormone production, growth, metabolism
Iron	Carries oxygen, assists in energy production
Manganese	Coenzyme
Molybdenum	Coenzyme
Selenium	Antioxidant
Zinc	Protein and DNA production, wound healing, growth, immune system function
Macrominerals
Calcium	Bone and teeth health maintenance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction, blood clotting
Chloride	Fluid balance, stomach acid production
Magnesium	Protein production, nerve transmission, muscle contraction
Phosphorus	Bone and teeth health maintenance, acid-base balance
Potassium	Fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction
Sodium	Fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction
Sulfur	Protein production

The thirteen vitamins are either water-soluble or fat-soluble. The water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C and all the B vitamins, which include thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folate, and cobalamin. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Vitamins are required to perform many functions in the body, such as making red blood cells, synthesizing bone tissue, and playing a role in normal vision, nervous system function, and immune system function. Table 10.2 highlights the essential vitamins and their major functions.

Table 10.2. Essential Vitamins and Their Major Functions. This table was modified from OpenStax’s Anatomy and Physiology 2e.

Vitamins	Major Functions
Water-soluble
Biotin (Vitamin B7)	Coenzyme, amino acid, and fatty acid metabolism
C (ascorbic acid)	Collagen synthesis; antioxidant
Cobalamin (Vitamin B12)	Coenzyme, red blood cell synthesis
Folate (Vitamin B9)	Coenzyme, essential for growth, especially in prenatal development
Niacin (Vitamin 3)	Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5)	Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)	Coenzyme, amino acid synthesis assistance
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)	Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Thiamin (Vitamin B1)	Coenzyme, energy metabolism assistance
Fat-soluble
A	Vision, reproduction, immune system function
D	Bone and teeth health maintenance, immune system function
E	Antioxidant, cell membrane protection
K	Bone and teeth health maintenance, blood clotting

Vitamin deficiencies can cause severe health problems and even death. For example, folate makes red blood cells. Folate is essential during prenatal development, but the body does not naturally produce folate. Folate must be consumed through food, such as dark-green leafy vegetables, liver, cereals, enriched bread, beans, or supplements. In early pregnancy diagnosis, prenatal vitamins containing calcium, folic acid, and iron are prescribed. Folate deficiencies can lead to wide-ranging issues, such as poor growth, gingivitis, appetite loss, shortness of breath, gastrointestinal problems, and mental deficits. Another example is Vitamin C or ascorbic acid. Vitamin C is easily absorbable due to its water-soluble nature. It is necessary to produce collagen for connective tissue formation and teeth and wound healing. Vitamin C deficiencies can lead to various dental issues (gingivitis, bleeding gums), damage to the integumentary system (dry hair, dry and scaly skin, slow wound healing, easy bruising), and even compromised immunity. Vitamin C has a recommended daily allowance of 75–90 mg that can be obtained from consuming citrus fruits (oranges, lemons), red berries, peppers, tomatoes, broccoli, and dark-green leafy vegetables.

Food Security, Malnutrition, Starvation

Food Security

Food security refers to having adequate access to food and consuming enough nutrients to achieve a healthy lifestyle. Food insecurity is defined as not having adequate access to food that meets nutritional needs. As shown in Figure 10.6, food security is impacted by four pillars: access, availability, utilization, and stability.

Figure 10.6 shows the four pillars of food security. Without access, availability, or utilization, an individual or household may become food unstable. Source: Adronisha Frazier, CC BY.

Food access can vary based on individual characteristics, such as socioeconomic status and residence near grocery stores. Unfortunately, employment status or access to money can impact food access. An individual must have continuous access to sufficient food of the right dietary mix to be food secure. Individuals who never have enough quality food are chronically food insecure.

One measurement of food quality is the amount of nutrients it contains relative to the amount of energy it provides. High-quality foods are nutrient-dense, meaning they have significant amounts of one or more essential nutrients respective to the number of calories they provide. Empty-calorie foods, such as carbonated sugary soft drinks, provide many calories and very little if any, other nutrients. Food quality is also associated with its taste, texture, appearance, microbial content, and consumer popularity.

However, issues with food security vary at the global, national, and local levels. At the national level, it is important to understand natural food production, the country’s access to food from the global market, its foreign exchange earnings, and its citizens’ consumer choices.

At a global level, the dominant pillar is food availability. Does global agricultural activity produce sufficient food to feed all the world’s inhabitants? The answer today is yes, but it may not be factual in the future given the impact of additional factors, such as a growing world population, emerging plant and animal pests and diseases, declining soil productivity and environmental quality, increasing use of land for fuel rather than food, and lack of attention to agricultural research and development.

Food utilization translates to the food available to a household into nutritional security for its members. One aspect of utilization is analyzed in terms of distribution according to need, which has specific nutritional standards for varying age groups. Hidden hunger commonly results from poor food utilization. Hidden hunger occurs when a person’s diet lacks the appropriate balance of macronutrients and micronutrients. Individuals may look well-nourished and consume sufficient calories but be deficient in crucial micronutrients such as Vitamin A, iron, and iodine.

The last pillar of food security, food stability, is when a population, household, or individual has access to food at all times and does not risk losing food access as a consequence of cyclical events or sudden shocks. For instance, job loss can lead to food instability for individuals. Crippling health conditions or health diagnoses causing an individual to lack ungainful employment can lead to food instability.

Malnutrition

Hunger relates to appetite and is the body’s response to a need for nourishment. The body alerts the brain that it requires food through stomach discomfort or intestinal rumbling. This uneasy sensation is easily addressed with a snack or a full meal. Hunger also relates to a weakened condition due to a prolonged lack of food. People who suffer from this form of hunger typically experience malnourishment and poor growth and development.

When someone lacks food stability or lives in a food-insecure household, they may suffer from malnutrition, which results from a failure to meet nutrient requirements. Malnutrition can occur by consuming too little food or not enough vital nutrients. There are two basic types of malnutrition. The first is macronutrient deficiency or inadequate protein consumption required for cell growth, maintenance, and repair. The second type of malnutrition is micronutrient deficiency, or inadequate vitamin and mineral intake. There is also undernutrition and overnutrition. Undernutrition is characterized by a lack of nutrients and insufficient energy supply. Undernutrition is intricately linked with suppression of the immune system at multiple levels. Undernourished children commonly die from severe diarrhea and/or pneumonia resulting from a bacterial or viral infection developed from immune system suppression. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the most prominent agency with the mission of changing the world to improve children’s lives, reports that undernutrition causes at least one-third of deaths of young children. As of 2008, the prevalence of underweight children under age five was 26 percent. The percentage of underweight children has declined less than 5% in the last eighteen years despite the Millennium Development Goal of halving the proportion of people suffering from hunger by 2015. Malnutrition can be caused by cancer, the inability to digest food properly, or even side effects from medications.

Overnutrition can result in obesity or a metabolic disorder that leads to an overaccumulation of fat tissue. Obesity is a known risk factor for many diseases, such as Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis. Undernutrition is common in the elderly, individuals with certain diseases, and the poverty-stricken.

Globally, there are three main groups most at risk of hunger: the rural poor in developing nations who also lack access to electricity and safe drinking water, the urban poor who live in expanding cities and lack the means to buy food, and victims of earthquakes, hurricanes, and other natural and anthropogenic catastrophes.

In the United States, additional subgroups are at risk and are more likely than others to face hunger and malnutrition. They include low-income families and “the working poor.” The working poor are employed but have incomes below the federal poverty level.

Other vulnerable groups are senior citizens, homeless people across North America, and children. Many senior citizens are frail and isolated, which affects their ability to meet their dietary requirements. Additional factors, such as low incomes, limited resources, and difficulty purchasing or preparing food, affect their ability to meet dietary requirements. Hunger and homelessness often go hand-in-hand as homeless families and adults turn to soup kitchens or food pantries or beg for food.

The federal poverty level (FPL) determines eligibility for food assistance programs. This monetary figure is the minimum amount a family would need to acquire shelter, food, clothing, and other necessities. It is calculated based on family size and adjusted for annual inflation. Although many people who fall below the FPL are unemployed, the working poor can qualify for food programs and other forms of public assistance if their income is less than a certain percentage of the federal poverty level, along with other qualifications.

As of mid-2023, in Louisiana, an estimated 683,110 people live with food insecurity with 34% as children. Project ALICE designates households as asset-limited, income-constrained, and employed if the adults maintain employment and earn above the Federal Poverty Level but struggle to afford basic living expenses, such as housing, utilities, medical care, and food. The United Way of Louisiana expounds on the ALICE statistics, revealing that 19% of Louisiana households lived below the poverty threshold, and an additional 32% met the ALICE guidelines in 2021. Unfortunately, this yields a combined “51% of Louisiana households with income below the ALICE threshold.” Find additional information at this website, such as complete reports on ALICE data and look at ALICE by parish: ALICE | Louisiana Association of United Ways (launitedway.org).

Starvation

Starvation, the most extreme form of malnutrition, refers to severe scarcity in caloric energy intake that is insufficient to meet an individual’s energy and nutritional needs. Starvation is a crisis typically occurring in developing countries. Women and children are the most vulnerable populations. The World Food Programme (WFP) is a humanitarian organization in over 120 countries and territories dedicated to food assistance and nutritional education. According to the WFP, 783 million people experience food insecurity. According to WFP’s hunger monitoring program that uses technological tools, such as “mobile technology, artificial intelligence, and data analytics,” to monitor food security in over 90 countries, there are 14 countries with more than 40% of the population experiencing insufficient food consumption as of August 2023 (Figure 10.7).

Figure 10.7 shows the data visualized for insufficient food consumption across the globe. Fourteen countries have 40% of their population experiencing insufficient food consumption: Afghanistan (87.63%), Benin (42.82%), Burkina Faso (57.37%), Chad (57.92%), the Democratic Republic of Congo (40.44%), Guinea (54.36%), Haiti (60.57%), Mali (70.24%), Niger (82.20%), Nigeria (40.44%), Sierra Leone (56.86%), Somalia (93.26%), the Syrian Arab Republic (68.42%), and Yemen (52.70%). All but one of the fourteen countries have updated information for August 2023. Benin’s data was last collected on January 10, 2022. Most countries’ data were collected via surveys, but Afghanistan’s data was based on predictive modeling. Source: World Food Programme, 2023b.

Different factors contribute to global starvation: familial socioeconomic factors that limit financial resources, the country’s economic status (high-income, newly emerging, and low-income), conflict within regions that lead to a severe disruption of the economy and the functioning and infrastructure of civilization in affected regions, access to nutritional foods and beverages, medical conditions that affect the body’s ability to absorb nutrients such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), climate change impacts on crop yield, and mental health conditions.

Complications from starvation include:

• immune system failures increasing susceptibility to illness,
• cardiovascular system issues (low heart rate, inability to maintain body temperature, and low blood pressure),
• digestion system deterioration, and
• vision issues.

Strategies to Address Nutrition Challenges

Global Efforts

As mentioned in the previous section, the United Nations World Food Programme is an organization focused on addressing world hunger. In 2015, the United Nations developed “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” The agenda contains 17 Sustainable Development Goals to address the global concerns for poverty and sustainability, which are:

• End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
• Zero hunger.
• Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.
• Quality education.
• Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
• Ensure access to water and sanitation for all.
• Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy.
• Promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment, and decent work for all.
• Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation.
• Reduce inequality within and among countries.
• Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
• Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
• Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
• Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources.
• Sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss.
• Promote just, peaceful, and inclusive societies.
• Revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.

Federal Government and Programs

The United States federal government has established many programs to alleviate hunger and ensure that many low-income families receive the nutrition they require to live a healthy life. Passage of the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 strengthened several programs. This legislation authorized funding and set the policy for several crucial core programs that provide a safety net for food-insecure children across the United States.

USDA Food Assistance Programs

Government food and nutrition assistance organized and operated by the USDA work to increase food security. These programs provide low-income households access to food, tools for consuming a healthy diet, and education about nutrition. The USDA monitors the extent and severity of food insecurity via an annual survey, which contributes to the efficiency of food assistance programs and the effectiveness of private charities and other initiatives for minimizing food insecurity.

The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program

Formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) provides monthly benefits for low-income households to purchase approved food items at authorized stores. Clients qualify for the program based on available household income, assets, and certain basic expenses. In an average month, SNAP benefits reach more than forty million people in the United States. The program provides Electronic Benefit Transfers (EBT) on a card that works similarly to a debit card. Clients receive a card with an allocation of money each month that can be used only for food. In 2010, the average benefit was about $134 per person per month. Total federal expenditures for the program were $68.2 billion.

The Special, Supplemental Program for Women, Infants, and Children

The Special, Supplemental Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) provides food packages to pregnant and breastfeeding women and infants and children up to age five to promote adequate nutrient intake for healthy growth and development. Most state WIC programs provide vouchers that participants use to acquire supplemental packages at authorized stores. In 2010, WIC served approximately 9.2 million participants per month at an average monthly cost of about $42 per person.

The National School Lunch Program

The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and School Breakfast Program (SBP) ensure that children in elementary and middle schools receive at least one healthy meal each school day, or two if both the NSLP and SBP are provided. According to the USDA, these programs operate in over 101,000 public and nonprofit private schools and residential child-care institutions. In 2010, the programs provided meals to an average of 31.6 million children each school day. Fifty-six percent of the lunches served were free. An additional 10% were provided at reduced prices.

Meals on Wheels

Meals on Wheels delivers meals to senior citizens who have difficulty buying or preparing food because of poor health or limited mobility. It is the oldest and largest program dedicated to addressing the nutritional needs of senior citizens. Every day, Meals on Wheels volunteers deliver more than one million meals across the United States. The first Meals on Wheels program began in Philadelphia in the 1950s. In recent decades, the organization has expanded into a vast network that serves the elderly in all fifty states and several US territories. Today, Meals on Wheels remains committed to ending hunger among the senior citizen community.

The Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program

According to Louisiana State University AgCenter, the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) is the first nutrition education program in the nation. The program receives funding from the USDA and the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) to serve Louisiana families through lessons on nutritional meals, dieting, physical exercise, food resource management, and food safety and security. Peer educators in the community teach the EFNEP sessions. Community agencies partner with EFNEP to provide community outreach activities on food and physical activity.

State-Level Policy and Government

A recent policy in Louisiana, House Bill No. 888, requires “the Board of Regents to establish a ‘Hunger-Free Campus’ designation program and related grant program for postsecondary education institutions” (Hunger-Free Campus, 2022).

Educational Awareness

Educational outreach is a helpful approach to raising awareness about the strategies to combat global hunger and starvation. A few examples to educate the community were listed above in the Federal Government and Programs section. Additional approaches include promoting citizen science projects and educators working as ambassadors in their community.

Citizen science projects are community science activities conducted by researchers with the general public. The general public voluntarily participates in presenting solutions to a real-world issue affecting their community. An example of a citizen science project revolving around environmental science is the Knoxville-Tennessee Environmental Soil and Stream Testing (K-TESST). The K-TESST allows the residents to test their soil quality using kits provided at the Knoxville Sustainable Future Center. This endeavor started with the work of a graduate student in the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), which focuses on promoting microbial literacy. The student completed this initiative as part of the ASM Young Ambassador Project Fund. Follow this link to learn more about their project and impact: https://sites.google.com/vols.utk.edu/k-tesst/home.

The Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality has an Outreach and Education division with the following programs: Louisiana Environmental Leadership Program, Enviroschool, and Envirothon. The Louisiana Environmental Leadership Program targets adults interested in promoting environmental quality in Louisiana through environmental stewardship efforts. The Enviroschool program supports training a broad group of individuals on environmental regulations. The Louisiana Envirothon encourages secondary learners in grades 6–12 to compete in teams to problem-solve environmental issues.

Chapter Summary

Agriculture is a critical component of understanding the economic status of a country. Agricultural ecosystems include domesticated plants, domesticated animals, and livestock. This chapter highlighted twelve crops essential for most global food production at 80%. Crops positively impact the economy, especially in the United States. Management systems can be applied to domesticated plants and livestock. These systems include intensive agricultural systems and plantation style-agriculture. Some systems are differentiated based on their use or no use of fertilizer.

Environmental impacts include understanding the impact of agricultural chemicals on groundwater, agriculture on aquatic ecosystems, natural agricultural methods (i.e., organic agriculture), pest management on crops and livestock, medicinal chemicals, such as antibiotics and growth hormones, and transgenic-modified crops or livestock.

Agriculture connects with nutrition as individuals obtain their nourishment from consuming crops and livestock. Nutrition is the balanced consumption of essential nutrients. This section highlighted six classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, minerals, and vitamins. This section summarizes the key characteristics of each nutrient. Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. Carbohydrates store energy in their bonds to be broken down for cellular use. Proteins are composed of chains of amino acids and have diverse functions. Lipids are hydrophobic molecules that store energy, are composed of cell membranes, surround and protect organs, and provide insulation in temperature regulation. Water, the most abundant chemical in the human body, is critical for life’s basic processes. Minerals are inorganic substances that can exist in small or large quantities. Table 10.1 lists the essential minerals. Vitamins required for many body functions are explored in Table 10.2.

Food security is impacted by four pillars: access, availability, utilization, and stability. These factors vary based on individuals and households. Food access is an individual factor that can vary based on personal characteristics, such as access to money and residence. Food availability is a global concern as the population size continues to increase. Food utilization refers to the nutritional value consumed by individuals. Food security is a healthy mix of access, availability, utilization, and stability.

Malnourished individuals lack food stability. Malnourishment can exist in different forms, such as macronutrient deficiency, micronutrient deficiency, undernutrition, and overnutrition. Additionally, three main groups were discussed as at-risk for hunger and vulnerable groups. The state of Louisiana tabulates the estimated number of households that experience food insecurity. The most severe form of malnutrition is starvation. Many factors contribute to global starvation that also have long-term health impacts on individuals. Numerous global, national, and state strategies and initiatives addressed nutrition challenges. Ultimately, individuals, community leaders, policymakers, stakeholders, and elected officials must understand how agricultural and nutritional factors impact human health.

Review Questions

1. Which domesticated crops are significant contributors to global food production?
2. What are the management systems used in crop cultivation?
3. Which livestock are vital to Louisiana’s economy?
4. Compare and contrast organic and conventional agriculture.
5. What are the three classes of macronutrients? What are the two similarities and two differences between the three classes of macronutrients?
6. What are the four pillars of food security?

Critical Thinking / Questions for Discussion

1. Why is domestication important to humans?
2. Which of the 17 Sustainable Development goals from the “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” report do you think are attainable by 2030? Why? Provide support for your answers.
3. Explain how the contributing factors to global starvation are relevant.
4. Choose one of the federal and state-level programs. Research the program’s history to determine the inception date, the target population, funding dollars disseminated until 2020, and current funding.

Key Terms

• Conventional agriculture – modern agriculture techniques using the application of pesticides and antibiotics to maintain viable crops.
• Dead zone – depletion of oxygen concentration due to increased nutrient deposition in aquatic bodies
• Domestication – the progressive modification of crops through the selective breeding of cultivated races (or cultivars), which are now genetically, anatomically, and physiologically different from their wild ancestors.
• Food security – the means to have adequate access to food and consume enough nutrients to achieve a healthy lifestyle
• Hypoxia – low oxygen concentration
• Macronutrients – nutrients needed in large amounts.
• Malnutrition – an individual lacks food stability or lives in a food-insecure household.
• Micronutrients – nutrients needed in lesser amounts.
• Nutrients – substances required by the body to perform its basic functions.
• Organic agriculture – uses natural agricultural methods that abstain from using synthetic fertilizer and pesticides and instead enhances natural pathways of nutrient cycling.
• Project ALICE – Asset Limited, Income Constrained, Employed; this project estimates the number of households meeting ALICE criteria and earning above the Federal Poverty Level but still struggling to afford basic living expenses.
• Starvation – severe scarcity in caloric energy intake that is insufficient to meet an individual’s energy and nutritional needs.

References Cited

Azarbad, H. 2022. Conventional vs. organic agriculture—which one promotes better yields and microbial resilience in rapidly changing climates? Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 1–9.

Betts, J. G., Desaix, P., Johnson, E., Johnson, J. E., Korol, O., Kruse, D., Poe, B., Wise, J., Womble, M., & Young, K. A. (2023). OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology 2e. OpenStax.

Clark, M. A., Choi, J., & Douglas, M. (2023). OpenStax biology 2e. OpenStax.

Cleveland Clinic. (2023). Malnutrition. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22987-malnutrition

Diamond, J. 1999. Guns, Germs, and Steel. The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton, New York. Environment Canada. 1996. The State of Canada’s Environment, 1996. Government of Canada, Ottawa, ON.

Fisher, M. R. (2017). Environmental biology. Pressbooks. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/envirobiology/

Hunger-Free Campus, Louisiana Stat. 17 § 3138.4 (2022). http://www.legis.la.gov/Legis/ViewDocument.aspx?d=129010

Louisiana Association of United Ways. (2023). ALICE—Asset limited, income constrained, employed. https://www.launitedway.org/ALICE

Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality. (2023). Outreach and Education. https://www.deq.louisiana.gov/page/outreach

LSU AgCenter. (2023). Nutrition education. https://www.lsuagcenter.com/topics/food_health/nutrition

LSU Libraries. (2023). Citizen science. https://guides.lib.lsu.edu/CitizenScience

Knoxville-Tennessee Environmental Soil and Stream Testing. (2023). Welcome to K-TESST. https://sites.google.com/vols.utk.edu/k-tesst/home

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2023). What is a dead zone? https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html

Ruth, T. (2023, February 22). Overall U.S. crop production is concentrated in California and the Midwest. United States Department of Agriculture. https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/chart-gallery/gallery/chart-detail/?chartId=58320

Titchenal, A., Calabrese, A., Gibby, C., Revilla, M. K. F., & Meinke, W. (n.d.). Human Nutrition. Pressbooks.

United Nations. (2023). The sustainable development goals report 2023: Special edition. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2023/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2023.pdf

World Food Programme. (2023a). A global food crisis. https://www.wfp.org/global-hunger-crisis

World Food Programme. (2023b). Data visualized. https://dataviz.vam.wfp.org/version2/

Endnotes

Figure 10.2 Sources from top to bottom, left to right. Wheat field in Vampula, Finland by Kallerna, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vehn%C3%A4pelto_6.jpg; Maize harvest at Tlaltizapán, Mexico by CIMMYT, https://www.flickr.com/photos/cimmyt/5426974387; Raw white rice in wood dishes by Marco Verch Professional Photographer, https://www.flickr.com/photos/30478819@N08/46772034742; Barley by Daniel Schwen, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Barley_fruit.jpg; Sorghum by Christian Fischer, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SorghumBicolor.jpg; Soybeans by Trisorn Triboon, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Soy_Beans_Photographed_by_Trisorn_Triboon_02.jpg; Picture of many potatoes, public domain; Cassava by Thamizhpparithi Maari, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cassava.jpg; Ipomoea batatas by Llez, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ipomoea_batatas_006.JPG; Sugarcane rows by Phil, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sugar_Cane_rows.jpg; Sugar beets by Stanzilla, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sugar_beets.jpg; Banana by Robin_24, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Banana_isolated_on_white.jpg.