Chapter 3 ~ Biodiversity

Chapter Overview

• Introduction
• Utilitarian Value
• Preserving Biodiversity and the Six Kingdoms of Life
• Landscape Biodiversity
• Biodiversity: Aligning Economics with Nature
• Biodiversity: Connecting Nature with Human Identity
• Societies and Stewards of Biodiversity
• Research Matric and Monitoring Biodiversity
• Chapter Summary

Introduction

Generally, biodiversity represents an enormous collection of living species on Earth. It is a vast network of unknown numbers of simple and complex organisms with estimates ranging from about five million to one trillion and beyond. A wealth of ecosystems and bionetworks provide nature with clean water, air, fertile soil, climate control, possible remedies, food and nutrition, recreation and restoration, and stimulated inspiration. However, this very important living bionetwork is vulnerable and in danger. Millions of varieties of species of living organisms (plant and animal) are at risk of extinction and/or gradual elimination. It is obvious that the intensive extraction of certain components of biodiversity in the name of growth and development as well as human civilization has tremendously impacted our ecological and natural living equilibrium. To avoid complete natural disasters that cannot be reversed and continually preserve our environment, it is imperative that the humanly impacted decline of biodiversity be stopped immediately. This will provide time and give the much-needed opportunity and the proper conditions for impacted biological complexities to be restored.

Preserving Biodiversity and the Six Kingdoms of Life

Preserving biodiversity is crucial to the health and welfare of our planet and all living things on it. The preservation of the diversity of species within each of the six kingdoms of life is necessary to maintain ecological equilibrium. These kingdoms are fundamental to biodiversity.

There are six biological kingdoms on the planet Earth.  Kingdom categories are used to group organisms together based on shared traits or similarities. The Archaea kingdom, sometimes called “archaebacteria,” consists of a group of single-celled microorganisms that are distinct from both bacteria and eukaryotes. They are the oldest-known organisms and were not discovered until the 1980s. Archaebacteria are prokaryotic organisms, meaning that they lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. These organisms are found in a wide range of environments, including extreme environments such as hot springs, deep-sea hydrothermal vents, and highly saline lakes. Numerous ecological processes, such as the global carbon and nutrient cycles, are mediated by archaea.   

The Eubacteria kingdom, also known as “true bacteria,” includes a diverse group of prokaryotic organisms that are found in virtually every habitat on Earth. This includes almost all types of bacteria, with the exception of archaebacteria, which are found in the forms of spirilla, cocci, and bacilli.  Eubacteria are characterized by their lack of a true nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles and their generally small size (usually ranging from 0.2 to 5 micrometers). Eubacteria are responsible for many important processes, such as nitrogen fixation (the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants), decomposition, and fermentation. 

Kingdom Protista is a biological kingdom that includes a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms.  Protista are typically unicellular or simple multicellular organisms, and they exhibit a wide range of characteristics and lifestyles.  Despite having few shared characteristics, protists are grouped together because they do not belong in any other kingdom. Protists include foraminifera, protozoans, slime molds, and single-celled and multicellular algae.  The latter group includes the large seaweeds known as kelps, some of which are over 10 m long. The kingdom Protista consists of 14 phyla and about 60,000 named species, which vary enormously in their genetics, morphology, and function. Many biologists believe that the Protista is a catch-all group of not-so-closely related groups. It is likely that the protists will eventually be divided into several kingdoms because of accumulating evidence of key differences among groups and recognition that the other, more complex eukaryotic kingdoms (fungi, plants, and animals) evolved from different protistan ancestors.

The Fungi Kingdom consists of a diverse group of organisms that includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. They are eukaryotic organisms, meaning that they have a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Fungi evolved at least 400 million years ago, but they may be much older than that because their remains do not fossilize well.  Fungal cells excrete enzymes into their surroundings, which then externally digest complex organic materials. The fungus then ingests the resulting simple organic compounds. All fungi are heterotrophic—most are decomposers of dead organic matter, while others are parasitic on plants or animals. There are three major divisions (phyla) of fungi, distinguished mainly by their means of sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is also common. Fungi play important roles in nutrient cycling and the decomposition of organic matter. To preserve biodiversity in this kingdom, we can protect forests and other habitats where fungi are abundant, limit the use of fungicides, and promote sustainable farming practices that incorporate the use of mycorrhizal fungi to enhance soil health.

The Plantae kingdom is critical to the survival of many animal species and plays a key role in maintaining the health of ecosystems. Plants are photosynthetic organisms that manufacture their food by using the energy of sunlight to synthesize organic molecules from inorganic ones. Plants evolved from multicellular green algae about 430 million years ago, and the first tree-sized ones appeared 300 million years ago. Plants are different from algae in that they are always multicellular, have cell walls rich in cellulose, synthesize a variety of photosynthetic pigments (including chlorophylls and carotenoids), and use starch as their principal means of storing energy. Plants are extremely important as photosynthetic fixers of CO₂ into organic carbon, and they are dominant in terrestrial ecosystems, where algae and blue-green bacteria are sparse. Plants can be separated into 12 divisions, which are aggregated into two functional groups.  More ways to preserve this kingdom’s biodiversity include preventing the destruction of natural habitats and deforestation, encouraging the adoption of sustainable agricultural methods, and safeguarding and restoring these areas.

The Animalia kingdom plays a vital role in maintaining ecological balance and provides important sources of food and medicine for humans. Animals are multicellular organisms, and most are mobile during at least some stage of their life history, having the ability to move about to search for food, to disperse, or to reproduce. Animals are heterotrophs: they must ingest their food, ultimately consuming the photosynthetic products of plants or algae. Most animals (except the sponges) have their cells organized into specialized tissues that are further organized into organs. Almost all animals reproduce sexually, a process that involves the joining of haploid gametes from a male and female to produce a fertilized egg. Animals comprise the bulk of identified species of organisms, with insects being the most diverse group. Apart from these broad generalizations, animals are extremely diverse in their form and function. They range in size from the largest blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus), which can reach 32 m in length and 136 tons of weight, to the smallest beetles and soil mites, which are less than 1 mm long and weigh a few milligrams. Preserving biodiversity in this kingdom involves working to protect and restore natural habitats, reducing overfishing and hunting, and promoting sustainable tourism practices that do not harm wildlife.

Landscape Biodiversity

There are many types of wetlands on our planet, and they are known for providing unique habitats for a host of plants and animals. As downstream receivers of water and waste, wetlands act as filtering systems for natural and human pollution. Water is a constant feature of wetlands whether permanent or seasonal. Plants called hydrophytes adapt to the water-saturated soils. Wetlands are categorized by their plants, hydric soils, and animal species. The U.S. has over 110 million acres of wetlands, including marshes, swamps, and bogs. More specifically, 40% of all the wetlands in the U.S. can be found in Louisiana. A variety of cypress species such as the bald cypress, pond cypress, and swamp cypress can be found in Louisiana wetlands (Figure 3.5). Wetlands provide important habitats for migratory birds and other wildlife, as well as important ecosystem services like water filtration and flood control.

Grassland regions are distinguished by prairie vegetation. The U.S. has vast grasslands, including the Great Plains and the prairies of the Midwest. They are characterized by rolling hills, grasses, and wildflowers. Grassland ecosystems support a wide variety of grazing animals like bison and pronghorn antelope. Forest ecosystems are prevalent throughout the U.S., including the temperate rainforests of the Pacific Northwest, the hardwood forests of the Northeast, and the pine forests of the Southeast. Forests are used for recreation and harvesting timber. However, they are important habitats for wildlife and provide important ecosystem services like carbon sequestration and water filtration.

Biodiversity: Aligning Economics with Nature

The concept of combining economic theories and methods with biodiversity preservation and sustainable management is discussed in this topic. This approach seeks to balance economic growth with the preservation and restoration of natural ecosystems and species, acknowledging the intrinsic value of biodiversity. To improve biodiversity conservation, economics and nature must work together in a number of crucial ways.  Overall, aligning economics with nature is essential for achieving a sustainable and equitable future that safeguards biodiversity, supports human well-being, and ensures the longevity of our planet’s ecosystems.

Biodiversity: Connecting Nature with Human Identity

Growing attention on the impacts on human health, responses toward our natural resources, and the preservation of wildlife habitats has become increasingly significant in our relationship with nature. Connecting nature with human identity explores the deep and intrinsic connection between humans and the natural world. As a result of this relationship, humans’ overall well-being depends strongly on the conservation of biodiversity. This connection is not merely economic or ecological but extends to the very essence of who we are as individuals and societies. Understanding and embracing the interconnectedness between biodiversity and human identity can foster a greater appreciation for nature, encourage conservation efforts, and promote a more harmonious relationship between humanity and the natural environment. Interacting with nature’s resources is often economical as well.  

It is important to acknowledge and nurture a relationship between people and nature for the well-being of both people and the planet. For example, Hot Springs, Arkansas, is known for its geothermal waters. People from all over the world visit the area just to submerge in the hot springs for relaxation and revitalization. Many believe that the warm water from the hot springs has healing power. The human connection to natural elements is vitally important because having no direct contact with nature can result in resistance to biodiversity conservation. 

Societies and Stewards of Biodiversity

Biodiversity also refers to the health of individual ecosystems and the creation of favorable environments that allow the kingdoms of life to flourish. As the world is becoming more urbanized, people are becoming increasingly disconnected from the natural world. However, we have a unique role to play in becoming stewards of biodiversity. Biodiversity is of great importance to human societies, as people can play an active role in conserving, protecting, and enforcing sustainable practices. A steward is someone who takes responsible care of something entrusted to them. Biodiversity dynamics are shaped by human activities. Although the complexity of the relationships between the kingdoms of life and human activities are not simply understood, communities and societies at large have a moral and practical duty to safeguard and to restore the planet’s biological diversity for current and future generations. 

Biodiversity includes a variety of crops for food consumption. In order to have healthy crops, we must have healthy soil. As per the warnings issued by the State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture, the primary threat to our agricultural systems is soil erosion. By 2050, soil erosion is predicted to lose 75 billion tons of soil and cause a 10% decrease in crop productivity. Water depletion, drought-stricken regions, and pollution are also primary causes affecting many of the world’s leading food-exporting nations. Good stewardship and sustainable practices will result in creating greater food production yields, healthy ecosystems, and viable habitats for wildlife animals and plants. By promoting a sense of stewardship and empowering individuals and communities to actively participate in biodiversity conservation efforts, societies can significantly contribute to the preservation and sustainable management of Earth’s rich and diverse biological heritage.

Research Matrix and Monitoring of Biodiversity

The only way we can know if the biodiversity in ecosystems is unbalanced or has changed is to monitor the trends and patterns of disturbances over a period of time. The U.S. Geological Survey (2019) defines ecological disturbances as “a physical force, agent, or process, either abiotic or biotic, causing a perturbation or stress, to an ecological component or system.” Monitoring ecological disturbances and trends, such as storms, floods, and pest invasions, should be closely observed because they offer baselines against which to assess alterations in the ecosystem’s structure and functioning. A research matrix and monitoring system for biodiversity involves a structured approach to collecting, organizing, and analyzing data related to biodiversity and ecosystem health. This helps in understanding biodiversity patterns, identifying threats, assessing conservation measures, and making informed decisions for sustainable resource management.

There are suggested methods to design a research matrix and monitoring system for biodiversity. By effectively pursuing a systematic approach as described below, adequately implementing a well-defined research matrix, and continuously monitoring biodiversity, people can effectively track changes, identify conservation needs, and develop evidence-based conservation and environmental preservation strategies. Such strategies essentially provide foundations to protect and preserve our planet’s diverse ecosystems and species. It is important to note that long-term monitoring programs track changes in biodiversity over time. The research matrix should be regularly reviewed and updated in order to account for new information, shifting conservation goals, and developments in technology.

Chapter Summary

Biodiversity is the richness of biological variation—it exists at the levels of genetics, species richness, and community diversity on landscapes and seascapes. Biodiversity is important to the survival of humans and their economy, and also to all other species. A wealth of ecosystems and bionetworks provide nature with clean water, air, fertile soil, climate control, possible remedies, food and nutrition, recreation and restoration, and stimulated inspiration. Humans depend on species variety as sources of food, biomaterials, and energy—in other words, for their utilitarian value. For instance, all foods that we eat are ultimately derived from biodiversity. There are six biological kingdoms on the planet Earth. Kingdom categories are used to group organisms together based on shared traits or similarities. The Archaea kingdom, sometimes called “archaebacteria,” consists of a group of single-celled microorganisms that are distinct from both bacteria and eukaryotes. The Eubacteria kingdom, also known as “true bacteria,” includes a diverse group of prokaryotic organisms that are found in virtually every habitat on Earth. Protista are typically unicellular or simple multicellular organisms, and they exhibit a wide range of characteristics and lifestyles. Fungi play important roles in nutrient cycling and the decomposition of organic matter. The Fungi kingdom consists of a diverse group of organisms that includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. They are eukaryotic organisms, meaning that they have a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The Plantae kingdom is critical to the survival of many animal species and plays a key role in maintaining the health of ecosystems. Plants are photosynthetic organisms that manufacture their food by using the energy of sunlight to synthesize organic molecules from inorganic ones. The Animalia kingdom plays a vital role in maintaining ecological balance and provides important sources of food and medicine for humans. Animals are multicellular organisms, and most are mobile during at least some stage of their life history, having the ability to move about to search for food, to disperse, or to reproduce.

There are many different types of ecosystems, climate zones, and geological formations in the U.S. This wide range of ecosystems has had a significant impact on the development of American history, culture, and economics. The U.S. has several deserts, including the Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan Deserts. The U.S. has more than 12,000 miles of coastline, and these regions are home to a variety of marine life, from whales and dolphins to sea turtles and seagulls. Wetlands come in a variety of forms and are recognized for offering distinct living habitats to a wide range of plants and animals. Louisiana wetlands are home to a variety of cypress species, including swamp, pond, and bald cypress. Grassland ecosystems in the U.S. support a wide variety of grazing animals like bison and pronghorn antelope. Forest ecosystems are used for recreation and harvesting timber. They are important habitats for wildlife and provide important ecosystem services like carbon sequestration and water filtration.

Increasing people’s knowledge of the short- and long-term costs of biodiversity loss as well as the financial advantages of biodiversity conservation can change people’s behavior and encourage more sustainable decision-making. In order to achieve significant achievements in bringing economics and biodiversity conservation into line, it is also imperative that governments, non-governmental organizations, corporations, communities, and academia work together and form partnerships. Connecting nature with human identity explores the deep and intrinsic connection between humans and the natural world. Taking on the role of stewards of biodiversity entails raising public awareness of the value of biodiversity as well as the dangers it confronts. Additionally, education gives people the ability to protect biodiversity by taking action and making educated decisions.

Key Terms

Biodiversity – represents an enormous collection of living species on Earth.

Culture – social norms, customs, and beliefs of a particular group of people.

Kingdoms of Life – a taxonomy ranking that is fundamental to biodiversity and based on shared traits or similarities of species.

Ecosystems – geographical regions where the weather, topography, and interactions between plants, animals, and other species create the existence of life.

Grasslands – regions that are distinguished by prairie vegetation. 

Steward – someone who takes responsible care of something entrusted to them.

Sustainability – the ability to sustain or enhance desired conditions or materials in their current state for an extended period of time.

Utilitarian value – functional benefits that consumers get from a product.

Wetlands – water-saturated regions with hydric plants and wildlife.

Review Questions

1. Define biodiversity and explain its components: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
2. Describe the ecological, economic, and social importance of biodiversity in the United States.
3. Discuss how human activities, such as urbanization and pollution, affect biodiversity in the United States.
4. List several ways in which societies can act as stewards of biodiversity.
5. Give an example of how people can connect with nature.
6. How does culture play a role in biodiversity?
7. Describe sustainable practices that promote biodiversity conservation in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How does a higher level of biodiversity contribute to the stability and resilience of an ecosystem, especially in the face of environmental changes or disturbances?
2. Can you provide examples of how loss of biodiversity has impacted ecosystem stability and functioning?
3. How does land use change contribute to habitat loss and the subsequent decline in biodiversity?
4. Discuss the effects of invasive species on native biodiversity and ecosystems, considering both short-term and long-term impacts.
5. How can society effectively manage and control invasive species to preserve native biodiversity?

References

Beever, E. A., Sethi, Prange, S., and  DellaSala, D. (2019). Introduction: Defining and interpreting ecological disturbances. USGS-Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center. 

Butchart, S. H., et al. (2010). Global biodiversity: Indicators of recent declines. Science, 328(5982), 1164–1168.

CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity). (1992). Convention on Biological Diversity. https://www.cbd.int/convention/.

CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity). (2010). Strategic plan for biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi targets. https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/.

Chapin, F. S., Sala, O. E., & Huber-Sannwald, E. (Eds.). (2011). Global biodiversity in a changing environment: Scenarios for the 21st century. Springer.

Díaz, S., & Cabido, M. (2001). Vive la différence: Plant functional diversity matters to ecosystem processes. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 16(11), 646–655.

Dirzo, R., & Raven, P. H. (2003). Global state of biodiversity and loss. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 28, 137–167.

Hortal, J., et al. (2015). Seven shortfalls that beset large-scale knowledge of biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 46, 523–549.

Lovejoy, T. E., & Hannah, L. (Eds.). (2019). Biodiversity and climate change: Transforming the biosphere. Yale University Press.

Mace, G. M., Norris, K., & Fitter, A. H. (2012). Biodiversity and ecosystem services: A multilayered relationship. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 27(1), 19–26.

Meffe, G. K., & Carroll, R. (1997). Principles of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates, Incorporated.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2003). Ecosystems and human well-being: A framework for assessment. Island Press.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: Biodiversity synthesis. World Resources Institute.

Pimm, S. L., & Raven, P. H. (2000). Extinction by numbers. Nature, 403(6772), 843–845.

Primack, R. B. (2014). Essentials of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates, Incorporated.

Sala, O. E., et al. (2000). Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science, 287(5459), 1770–1774.

Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. (2014). Global biodiversity outlook 4. Montreal, Canada: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Turner, W., et al. (2015). Free and open-access satellite data are key to biodiversity conservation. Biological Conservation, 173, 173–176.

Vitousek, P. M., et al. (1997). Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: Sources and consequences. Ecological Applications, 7(3), 737–750.

Wilson, E. O. (1992). The diversity of life. W. W. Norton & Company.