1.5: The Chronological Origin of Food Safety Regulation

Introduction

The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) collaborates with various federal agencies, states, tribal authorities, stakeholders, and the public to ensure the safety of meat, poultry, and egg products throughout the food supply chain (USDA, n.d.). The history of food safety regulation in the United States dates back to 1862 when President Abraham Lincoln established the USDA and appointed Charles M. Wetherill as the chief of the Division of Chemistry, which later became the Bureau of Chemistry in 1901 (USDA, n.d.).

In 1883, Harvey W. Wiley, M.D., became the chief chemist at USDA and dedicated his career to raising awareness about food adulteration, developing food processing standards, and advocating for the Pure Food and Drugs Act (USDA, n.d.). The late 1800s saw significant expansion of the railroads across the United States, which, along with technological advancements like refrigerated rail cars and electricity, facilitated year-round operations for the meat packing industry (USDA, n.d.).

The need for animal disease control and interstate commerce regulation led to the establishment of the USDA Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) in 1884, which was tasked with preventing diseased animals from being used as food (USDA, n.d.). The first law requiring meat inspection was signed by President Benjamin Harrison on August 30, 1890, mandating USDA inspection of salted pork and bacon intended for export (USDA, n.d.).

A turning point in meat inspection came in 1905 with the publication of Upton Sinclair’s novel “The Jungle,” which exposed the unsanitary conditions in Chicago meatpacking houses (USDA, n.d.). This led to the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA) in 1906, which prohibited the sale of adulterated or misbranded meat and meat products and ensured sanitary conditions in slaughterhouses and processing facilities (USDA, n.d.).

The Pure Food and Drug Act Impact the Meatpacking Industry

The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 had a significant impact on the meatpacking industry in the United States:

1. The Act was passed in response to growing concerns about food safety, particularly in the meatpacking industry. It was enacted on the same day as the Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA), marking a turning point for meat inspection and regulation.
2. The Pure Food and Drug Act prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors.
3. This directly affected the meatpacking industry by setting standards for product quality and labeling.
4. While the Pure Food and Drug Act addressed general food safety concerns, the FMIA specifically targeted the meatpacking industry. It prohibited the sale of adulterated or misbranded meat and meat products for food and ensured that meat and meat products were slaughtered and processed under sanitary conditions.
5. The implementation of these acts led to increased government oversight of the meatpacking industry. The USDA’s Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) was tasked with enforcing the FMIA, while the Bureau of Chemistry (which later became the FDA) was responsible for enforcing the Pure Food and Drug Act.
6. These regulations forced meatpacking companies to improve their sanitation practices and product quality to comply with the new standards. This helped restore public confidence in the safety of meat products, which had been severely damaged by exposés like Upton Sinclair’s novel “The Jungle”.
7. The Acts also paved the way for further regulations and improvements in food safety standards in the following decades, continuously shaping the practices of the meatpacking industry.
8. In essence, the Pure Food and Drug Act, along with the FMIA, marked the beginning of federal oversight of food safety in the United States, significantly impacting the meatpacking industry by enforcing higher standards of sanitation, product quality, and labeling (Food Safety Agencies and Partners, FSIS).

The Food and Drug Administration Begins

1. 1. 1927. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has its roots in the early 20th century. In 1927, the Bureau of Chemistry within the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) underwent reorganization and was renamed the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration (U.S. Food and Drug Administration [FDA], 2018). This organization was further renamed in 1931, becoming the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as we know it today (FDA, 2018).
      1928. 1938 – 1953. A significant milestone in the FDA’s history occurred in 1938 with the passage of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act by Congress (FDA, 2018). This legislation granted the FDA the authority to establish food safety standards and other regulatory powers (FDA, 2018). Two years later, in 1940, the FDA was transferred from the USDA to the Federal Security Agency (FDA, 2018). Subsequently, in 1953, this agency evolved into the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, which is now known as the Department of Health and Human Services (FDA, 2018).

The Meat-Packing Industry Evolves

The post-World War II era brought significant changes to the meat-packing industry. The expansion of the federal highway system and the advent of refrigerated trucks allowed meat packers to relocate from expensive urban areas to more cost-effective rural locations (U.S. Department of Agriculture [USDA], n.d.). This shift led to the development of sophisticated, mechanized plants in these rural areas (USDA, n.d.).

1. 1. 1946. 1946. In 1946, the Agricultural Marketing Act (AMA) was passed, expanding the scope of inspection to include exotic and game animals on a fee-for-service basis (USDA, n.d.). This act also granted the USDA the authority to inspect, certify, and identify the class, quality, and condition of agricultural products (USDA, n.d.).
      1947. In 1981, grading and quality identification activities were separated from inspection activities and assigned to USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA, n.d.). Under the AMA, the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) continues to provide a range of voluntary inspection, certification, and identification services (USDA, n.d.).

Evolution of Food Safety Regulation

The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) was established in 1953, consolidating several scientific bureaus within the USDA.  This marked a significant reorganization of agricultural research and oversight. The following chart summarizes the key dates and occurrences in the history of food and drug regulation in the United States:

In the 1950s and 1960s, food inspection shifted its focus to wholesomeness and visible contamination, while addressing new concerns about chemical additives and humane slaughter methods. The Humane Methods of Slaughter Act of 1958, Humane Methods of Slaughter Act,  was an important milestone in this regard.

Expansion of Regulatory Oversight

The 1960s saw further regulatory reform with the Wholesome Meat Act and Wholesome Poultry Act, which required state inspection programs to be at least equal to federal standards.

In the 1970s, egg product inspection was mandated by the Egg Products Inspection Act (FSIS), and the responsibility for meat and poultry inspection was transferred to newly created agencies.  In 1977, the Food Safety and Quality Service (FSQS) was created to perform meat and poultry grading, as well as inspection activities, instead of APHIS. In 1981, FSQS was reorganized and renamed the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS)

Modern Approaches to Food Safety

A significant shift in food safety regulation occurred in the 1990s following a major E. coli outbreak. This led to the implementation of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system, Pathogen Reduction/HACCP Systems (FSIS) which focuses on preventing microbial contamination in food production.   Since then, efforts to combat foodborne pathogens have intensified, with stricter performance standards and expanded testing for various harmful bacteria in meat and poultry products.

HACCP clarifies the respective roles of government and industry. Industry is accountable for producing safe food. Government is responsible for setting appropriate food safety standards, maintaining vigorous inspection oversight to ensure those standards are met, and maintaining a strong regulatory enforcement program to deal with noncompliance.

Between January 1997 and January 2000, HACCP was implemented in all FSIS and state-inspected meat and poultry slaughter and processing establishments across the nation. The  Centers Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have recognized HACCP as an important factor in the overall decline in bacterial foodborne illnesses since 1996.

A New Era

In 2020, The New Era of Smarter Food Safety, an FDA initiative, was announced. Its aims is to create a safer and more digital, traceable food system by leveraging technology and other innovative approaches. This strategic plan builds on the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) and outlines goals to enhance traceability, improve predictive analytics, respond more rapidly to outbreaks, address new business models, reduce food contamination, and foster stronger food safety cultures over the next decade (FDA).

Key Components

1.   Tech-Enabled Traceability: Aims to enable faster tracing of contaminated food to its source in minutes rather than days or weeks.
2. Smarter Tools and Approaches: Utilizes new technologies such as artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, sensor technologies, and blockchain to strengthen prevention of foodborne illnesses.
3. New Business Models and Retail Modernization: Addresses challenges in the evolving food system, including e-commerce and changing consumer behaviors.
4.   Food Safety Culture: Focuses on fostering a culture that transcends borders between the public and private sectors.

Federal Sources Involved in Food Safety

U.S. Food and Drug Administration

The FDA is charged with protecting consumers against impure, unsafe, and fraudulently labeled products. FDA, through its Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, (CFSAN), regulates foods other than the meat, poultry, and egg products regulated by FSIS. The Food and Drug Administration  (FDA), is also responsible for the safety of drugs, medical devices, biologics, animal feed and drugs, cosmetics, and radiation emitting devices.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

The Center for Disease Control, (CDC), leads federal efforts to gather data on foodborne illnesses, investigate foodborne illnesses and outbreaks, and monitor the effectiveness of prevention and control efforts in reducing foodborne illnesses. CDC also plays a key role in building state and local health department epidemiology, laboratory, and environmental health capacity to support foodborne disease surveillance and outbreak response.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) plays a crucial role in ensuring food safety in the United States through several key activities:

Surveillance and Investigation

The CDC leads efforts to gather data on foodborne illnesses and investigate outbreaks1. This includes:

• Operating 18 surveillance systems to detect cases or outbreaks of foodborne disease
• Using advanced technology like whole genome sequencing to identify outbreaks more precisely
• Investigating multistate foodborne disease outbreaks
• Helping state and local health departments improve their tracking and investigation capabilities

Partnerships and Collaboration

The CDC works closely with various partners to enhance food safety efforts:

• Collaborates with government agencies like the FDA and USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service
• Supports state and local health departments in improving their foodborne illness tracking and investigation processes
• Works with other countries and international agencies to improve global food safety

Data Analysis and Prevention

The CDC uses the data it collects to:

• Determine whether prevention measures are working
• Identify areas where further efforts are needed to reduce foodborne illness
• Study annual changes in the number of illnesses
• Implement systems for prevention
• Policy and Guidelines

The CDC contributes to food safety policy and guidelines by:

• Assessing the status of public health policies and practices related to food safety across all 50 states and the District of Columbia.
• Promoting the adoption of critical FDA Food Code provisions by states

Education and Awareness

The CDC plays a role in educating the public and food industry professionals about food safety practices, particularly in restaurant settings4. This includes promoting:

• Proper hand hygiene practices
• Exclusion of ill food workers
• Food protection manager certification

By focusing on these areas, the CDC provides vital links between foodborne illnesses and the food safety systems of government agencies and food producers, ultimately working to reduce the incidence of foodborne illnesses in the United States.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

The U.S. Environmental and Protection Agency, (EPA) works for a cleaner, healthier environment. EPA’s mission includes protecting public health and the environment from risks posed by pesticides and promoting safer means of pest management.

U.S. Department of Homeland Security

FSIS works with agencies in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), to ensure that FSIS is able to respond quickly and effectively to an attack on the food supply, major disease outbreak, or other disaster affecting the national food infrastructure.

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

The primary role of Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) in the U.S. food safety network of agencies is to protect against plant and animal pests and diseases. APHIS also administers the Animal Welfare Act and carries out wildlife damage management activities.

Food and Nutrition Service

As the agency responsible for administering the nutrition assistance programs of USDA, the Food and Nutrition Service, (FNS) provides children and low-income people access to food, a healthful diet, and nutrition education. Food safety and security is an important aspect of the USDA nutrition assistance programs.

National Agricultural Library

The National Agricultural Library (NAL) is the U.S. center for the international agricultural information system, coordinating and sharing resources and enhancing global access to agricultural data. Additional sources include the USDA Nutrition site and the Food and Nutrition Information Center, (FNIC).

National Institute of Food and Agriculture

The higher education source for food safety information is the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, (NIFA).  The Institute’s unique mission is to advance knowledge for agriculture, the environment, human health and well-being, and communities by supporting research, education, and extension programs in the Land-Grant University System and other partner organizations. (NIFA is the former Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES).

Partnership for Food Safety Education

The Partnership for Food Safety Education, (PFSE), unites consumer groups, professional societies in food science, nutrition, and health; industry associations, and the U.S. government to educate the public about safe food handling and preparation. FSIS is a Federal government liaison to the Partnership.

State Governments

During a recall investigation, FSIS may work with other agencies, including state or local public health departments, other USDA agencies, and other Federal agencies such as FDA and the Department of Defense.  To find your State department of Health or Agriculture, you can go to Foodsafety.gov.