Glossary

the persistent difference in grades, test scores, and graduation rates that exist among students of different ethnicities, races, and—in certain subjects—sexes

begins around 20 years old and has three distinct stages: early, middle, and late

drugs designed to improve moods

the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother

set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by repetitive behaviors and communication and social problems

controls our internal organs and glands

initiate tasks, and carry out plans. contributes to a positive sense of self.

the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves

dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain

focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors

period of rapid neural growth

developmental psychologists collect a great deal of information from one individual in order to better understand physical and psychological changes over the lifespan

information, skills, and strategies we have gathered through a lifetime of experience

one of a collection of culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of displays of emotions that are acceptable

focuses on how people change, and keep in mind that all the approaches that we present in this chapter address questions of change

a helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs

the heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function

stage theorist, took Freud’s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson’s psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature

allows developmental psychologists to make causal statements about certain variables that are important for the developmental process

a collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ scores

When the organism is about nine weeks old

activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety

denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance

an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event

information processing abilities, reasoning, and memory

highest level of cognitive development

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved

a pioneer in the study of adolescent development

view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes

the mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mother’s uterus

cells that surround and link to the neurons, protecting them, providing them with nutrients, and absorbing unused neurotransmitters

consisting of two different alleles

is to help provide a death with dignity and pain management in a humane and comfortable environment, which is usually outside of a hospital setting

twins that develop from the same sperm and egg

asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal

another stage theorist who studied childhood development

believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages

cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition, particularly language or reading

from the start of life to the end

the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old

extends from the 40s to the 60s

memory aids that help us organize information for encoding

It seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture

chemical messenger of the nervous system

secure, avoidant, and resistant

connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body

the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment

multiple genes affecting a given trait

occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings

we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood

what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access information without cues

protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach

allele whose phenotype will be expressed only if an individual is homozygous for that allele

attributions that enable us to see ourselves in favorable light

a stage of development which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior

believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage.

transmits sensory and motor signals to and from the central nervous system

a fear of unfamiliar people

asks individuals to self-report important information about their thoughts, experiences, and beliefs

spaces between the cells

the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands

lapses in memory are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else

describes when they change their schemata based on new information

encoding of sounds, words in particular

change in electrical charge that occurs in a neuron when a nerve impulse is transmitted

the phenomenon of attributing other people’s behavior to internal factors (fundamental attribution error) while attributing our own behavior to situational forces

the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood

the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands, respectively

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age

behavior that is intended to harm another individual

a drug that has chemical properties similar to a particular neurotransmitter and thus mimics the effects of the neurotransmitter

a specific version of a gene

any behavior that is designed to increase another person’s welfare, and particularly those actions that do not seem to provide a direct reward to the person who performs them

a professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma

consists of two “almond-shaped” clusters (amygdala comes from the Latin word for “almond”) and is primarily responsible for regulating our perceptions of, and reactions to, aggression and fear

eating disorder characterized by the maintenance of a body weight well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise

a drug that reduces or stops the normal effects of a neurotransmitter

you cannot remember new information, although you can remember information and events that happened prior to your injury

rugs that help relieve fear or anxiety

drugs that treat the symptoms of schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

the influence of the group majority on an individual’s judgment

when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know

which sensory and motor information is combined and associated with our stored knowledge

based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information

our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object

esponsible for hearing and language

the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth

the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child’s point of view

encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words

a type of behavior therapy in which positive punishment is used to reduce the frequency of an undesirable behavior.

transmits information away from the cell body toward other neurons or to the muscles and glands

type of surgery specifically aimed at weight reduction, and it involves modifying the gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting how much of the digested food can be absorbed

the observation that people tend to believe in descriptions of their personality that supposedly are descriptive of them but could in fact describe almost anyone

psychological treatment that is based on principles of learning

approach of observing and controlling behavior

your feelings and view of the world can actually distort your memory of past events

eating binges are not followed by inappropriate behavior, such as purging, but they are followed by distress, including feelings of guilt and embarrassment

internal rhythms of biological activity

treatments designed to reduce psychological disorder by influencing the action of the central nervous system.

explores how our biology influences our behavior

the expression of emotion in terms of body position or movement

idea that the left and the right hemispheres of the brain are specialized to perform different functions

the oldest and innermost region of the brain

engage in binge eating behavior that is followed by an attempt to compensate for a large amount of food consumed

another stimulant drug

maintains that emotional experience occurs simultaneous to and independent of physiological arousal

networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other

brain and spinal cord

plays a role in attention, and it has connections with the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems’ activity

consists of two wrinkled ovals behind the brain stem

the outer bark-like layer of our brain that allows us to so successfully use language, acquire complex skills, create tools, and live in social groups

leaders who are enthusiastic, committed, and self-confident; who tend to talk about the importance of group goals at a broad level; and who make personal sacrifices for the group

long strings of genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

organize information into manageable bits or chunks

a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours

thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem-solving, judgment, language, and memory

involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions

theory-of-mind, relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others

concerned with the relationship that exists between thought and behavior, and developmental psychologists study the physical and cognitive changes that occur throughout one’s lifespan

a psychological treatment that helps clients identify incorrect or distorted beliefs that are contributing to disorder

a structured approach to treatment that attempts to reduce psychological disorders through systematic procedures based on cognitive and behavioral principles

asserts our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus

a collection of shared ancestral memories

psychological treatments and interventions that are distributed at the community level.

Our emotional states are combinations of physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences

occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote

occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies

process where we seek out information that supports stereotypes and ignore information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes

our awareness of internal and external stimuli

The formulation of new memories

views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills

the region that normally connects the two halves of the brain and supports communication between the hemispheres

a similar discipline that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy.

has to do with the storage of facts and events we personally experienced.

unconscious psychological strategies used to cope with anxiety and to maintain a positive self-image

collects information from other cells and sends the information to the soma

a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity.

try to answer, by studying how humans change and grow from conception through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and death

the scientific study of development across a lifespan

development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages.

children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them

type of body dysmorphia, meaning that they view themselves as overweight even though they are not

an allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual that possesses that allele

analyze the symbolism of the dreams in an effort to probe the unconscious thoughts of the client and interpret their significance

deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs

a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued

an approach to treatment in which the therapist uses whichever techniques seem most useful and relevant for a given patient

required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information

the largely conscious controller or decision-maker of personality

a technique in which you think about the meaning of the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory

a medical procedure designed to alleviate psychological disorder in which electric currents are passed through the brain, deliberately triggering a brief seizure

relatively newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love

a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings

acquiring knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities

the input of information into the memory system

the group of neurons that serve as the “physical representation of memory”

study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes

information about events we have personally experienced

if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function

those we consciously try to remember and recall

a behavioral therapy based on the classical conditioning principle of extinction, in which people are confronted with a feared stimulus with the goal of decreasing their negative emotional responses to it

suggested that suppression of facial expression of emotion lowered the intensity of some emotions experienced by participants

Recall of false autobiographical memories

a cluster of birth defects and symptoms

focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon)

five fundamental underlying trait dimensions that are stable across time, cross-culturally shared, and explain a substantial proportion of behavior

branch of psychology that deals with questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system

refers to the loss of information from long-term memory

from about age 11 to adulthood. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs.

twins who develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so their genetic material varies the same as in non-twin siblings

herapist listens while the client talks about whatever comes to mind, without any censorship or filtering

responsible primarily for thinking, planning, memory, and judgment

focuses on how mental activities help an organism fit into its environment.

diagnostic category in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) that describes individuals who do not identify as the gender that most people would assume they are

sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics

the genetic makeup of that individual

focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping)

the strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group

psychotherapy in which clients receive psychological treatment together with others

the modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus

a pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage

one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences

theory of motivation that spans the spectrum of motives ranging from the biological to the individual to the social.

consists of two “horns” that curve back from the amygdala

the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system

prejudice and discrimination of individuals based solely on their sexual orientation

a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans.

a psychological treatment based on the personality theories of Carl Rogers and other humanistic psychologists

a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli

which lies above the pituitary gland, is a main center of homeostasis

the component of personality that forms the basis of our most primitive impulses

memories that are not part of our consciousness

a group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to

an understanding of the unconscious causes of the disorder

a species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned

allowing the therapist to try to understand the underlying unconscious problems that are causing the symptoms

the belief that people get the outcomes they deserve

a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another

the ability to direct or inspire others to achieve goals

a satiety hormone

If we want to remember a piece of information, we should think about it more deeply and link it to other information and memories to make it more meaningful.

brain area, located between the brain stem and the two cerebral hemispheres, that governs emotion and memory. It includes the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the hippocampus.

the continuous storage of information

act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment

the area of the brain stem that controls heart rate and breathing

the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time.

the step of rehearsal, the conscious repetition of information to be remembered, to move STM into long-term memory

help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory

the beginning of menstrual periods, usually around 12–13 years old

a statistical technique that uses the results of existing studies to integrate and draw conclusions about those studies

the amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time

a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available

a test used around the world to identify personality and psychological disorders

happens when you confuse the source of your information

holds that after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event

process of cell division

having a BMI over 40

describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal

he part of the cortex that controls and executes movements of the body by sending signals to the cerebellum and the spinal cord.

refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects

sudden, permanent change in a gene

a layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that both acts as an insulator and allows faster transmission of the electrical signal.

observing behavior in its natural context

biology and genetics

The neo-Freudian theories are theories based on Freudian principles that emphasize the role of the unconscious and early experience in shaping personality but place less evidence on sexuality as the primary motivating force in personality and are more optimistic concerning the prospects for personality growth and change in personality in adults.

the forming of new neurons

cell in the nervous system whose function is to receive and transmit information

the brain’s ability to change its structure and function in response to experience or damage

a chemical that relays signals across the synapses between neurons.

a series of breaks between the sausage-like segments of the myelin sheath

asks, “What is normal development?”

our environment and culture

the change of an individual’s behavior to comply with a demand by an authority figure

When someone weighs more than what is generally accepted as healthy for a given height

the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists

free from the personal bias or emotions of the scientist

at the very back of the skull, which processes visual information.

one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine

a group that we view as fundamentally different from us

studies that assess the effectiveness of medical treatments, to determine the effectiveness of different therapies

an adult with a body mass index (BMI) between 25 and 29.9

combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone

associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations

which extends from the middle to the back of the skull and which is responsible primarily for processing information about touch

an approach to treatment in which the client is helped to grow and develop as the therapist provides a comfortable, nonjudgmental environment

long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways

focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

relatively consistent patterns of thought and behavior

the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication

refers to the individual’s inherited physical characteristics, which are a combination of genetic and environmental influences

changes in normal bodily functions—the user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use

involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness

a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord

lie detector test, measures the physiological arousal of an individual responding to a series of questions

a structure in the brain stem that helps control the movements of the body, playing a particularly important role in balance and walking

from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play

are organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males

when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information

type of implicit memory: it stores information about how to do things

measures of personality in which unstructured stimuli, such as inkblots, drawings of social situations, or incomplete sentences, are shown to participants, who are asked to freely list what comes to mind as they think about the stimuli

the member of the category that is most average or typical of the category

focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences

psychological treatment based on Freudian and neo-Freudian personality theories in which the therapist helps the patient explore the unconscious dynamics of personality

an evaluation of the patient’s psychological and mental health

an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress

a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

the scientific study of mind and behavior

involves emotions, personality, and social relationships

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in the hope of improving disorder

the professional treatment for psychological disorder through techniques designed to encourage communication of conflicts and insight

prejudice and discrimination against an individual based solely on one’s membership in a specific racial group

asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall

characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids

the process of bringing up old memories

repeated drug use and/or alcohol use after a period of improvement from substance abuse

It involves learning information that you previously learned

using defense mechanisms to avoid the painful feelings in his or her unconscious

children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them

a state in which the interior of the neuron contains a greater number of negatively charged ions than does the area outside the cell

Running through the medulla and the pons is a long, narrow network of neurons

the act of getting information out of storage and into conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and relearning

happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information

Memory problems that extend back in time before the injury and prevent retrieval of information previously stored in long-term memory

a process in which neurotransmitters that are in the synapse are reabsorbed into the transmitting terminal buttons, ready to again be released after the neuron fires

the social, environmental, and economic vulnerabilities that make it more likely than average that a given individual will develop a disorder

a projective measure of personality in which the respondent indicates his or her thoughts about a series of 10 symmetrical inkblots

suggests that physiological arousal receives cognitive labels as a function of the relevant context and that these two factors together result in an emotional experience

emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and cognitive

a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help us organize information

are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information

the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research

broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time

a person’s knowledge about the sequence of events expected in a specific setting

are physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys

the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger

the motivation to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent

the set of beliefs about who we are

an individual’s belief in her own capability to complete a task

our positive feelings about the self

an expectation held by a person that alters his or her behavior in a way that tends to make it true

a voluntary association of people who share a common desire to overcome psychological disorder or improve their well-being

the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

The encoding of words and their meaning

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes

specialized neurons that respond to specific types of stimuli

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sex

their emotional and erotic attraction toward another individual

temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; sometimes it is called working memory

occurs when an individual performs better when an audience is watching than when the individual performs the behavior alone

the exertion of less effort by a person working together with a group

a group’s expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members

examines how people affect one another, and it looks at the power of the situation

a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group

contains the nucleus of the cell and keeps the cell alive

an area just behind and parallel to the motor cortex at the back of the frontal lobe, receives information from the skin’s sensory receptors and the movements of different body parts.

the first ejaculation, around 13–14 years old

study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing

drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity

the creation of a permanent record of information

describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

our sense of morality and thoughts

involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities

areas where the terminal buttons at the end of the axon of one neuron nearly, but don’t quite, touch the dendrites of another.

a behavioral treatment that combines imagining or experiencing the feared object or situation with relaxation exercises

refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment

responsible primarily for hearing and language

any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus

axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles

he egg-shaped structure above the brain stem that applies still more filtering to the sensory information that is coming up from the spinal cord and through the reticular formation, and it relays some of these remaining signals to the higher brain levels

a projective measure of personality in which the respondent is asked to create stories about sketches of ambiguous situations, most of them of people, either alone or with others

the theory states that organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off

a relationship between the client and the therapist that is facilitated when the therapist is genuine (i.e., he or she creates no barriers to free-flowing thoughts and feelings), when the therapist treats the client with unconditional positive regard (i.e., values the client without any qualifications, displaying an accepting attitude toward whatever the client is feeling at the moment), and when the therapist develops empathy with the client (i.e., that he or she actively listens to and accurately perceives the personal feelings that the client experiences)

level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active

linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses

relatively enduring characteristics that influence our behavior across many situations

a medical procedure designed to reduce psychological disorder that uses a pulsing magnetic coil to electrically stimulate the brain

the patient unconsciously redirects feelings experienced in an important personal relationship toward the therapist

an attempt to make their bodies look more like the opposite sex

memories can fade over time

a set of behaviors including being genuine, open to experience, transparent, able to listen to others, and self-disclosing and empathic

area located in the occipital lobe (at the very back of the brain) that processes visual information

encoding of images

characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior

holds that a simple task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower

begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge