What is “Western Civilization”?  Furthermore, who or what is part of it?  Like all ideas, the concept of Western Civilization itself has a history, one that coalesced in college textbooks and curriculums for the first time in the United States in the 1920s.  In many ways, the very idea of Western Civilization is a “loaded” one, opposing one form or branch of civilization from others as if they were distinct, even unrelated.  Thus, before examining the events of Western Civilization’s history, it is important to unpack the history of the concept itself.

Where Is the West?

The obvious question is “west of what”?  Likewise, where is “the east”? Terms used in present-day geopolitics regularly make reference to an east and west, as in “Far East” and “Middle East,” as well as in “Western” ideas or attitudes.  The obvious answer is that “the West” has something to do with Europe.  If the area including Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Israel – Palestine, and Egypt is somewhere called the “Middle” or “Near” East, doesn’t that imply that it is just to the east of something else?

In fact, we get the original term from ancient Greece.  Greece is the center point, east of the Balkan Peninsula was east, west of the Balkans was west, and the Greeks were at the center of their self-understood world.  Likewise, the sea that both separated and united the Greeks and their neighbors, including the Egyptians and the Persians, is still called the Mediterranean, which means “sea in the middle of the earth” (albeit in Latin, not Greek – we get the word from a later “Western” civilization, the Romans). The ancient civilizations clustered around the Mediterranean treated it as the center of the world itself, their major trade route to one another and a major source of their food as well.

To the Greeks, there were two kinds of people: Greeks and barbarians (the Greek word is barbaros).  Supposedly, the word “barbarian” came from Greeks mocking the sound of non-Greek languages: “bar-bar-bar-bar.”  The Greeks traded with all of their neighbors and knew perfectly well that the Persians and the Egyptians and the Phoenicians, among others, were not their inferiors in learning, art, or political organization, but the fact remains that they were not Greek, either.  Thus, one of the core themes of Western Civilization is that right from its inception, of the east being east of Greece and the west being west of Greece, and of the world being divided between Greeks and barbarians, there was an idea of who is central and superior, and who is out on the edges and inferior (or at least not part of the best version of civilization).

In a sense, then, the Greeks invented the idea of West and East, but they did not extend the idea to anyone but themselves, certainly including the “barbarians” who inhabited the rest of Europe.  In other words, the Greeks did not have a concept of “Western Civilization,” just Greek vs. barbarian.  Likewise, the Greeks did not invent “civilization” itself; they inherited things like agriculture and writing from their neighbors.  Neither was there ever a united Greek empire: there was a great Greek civilization when Alexander the Great conquered what he thought was most of the world, stretching from Greece itself through Egypt, the Middle East, as far as western India, but it collapsed into feuding kingdoms after he died.  Thus, while later cultures came to look to the Greeks as their intellectual and cultural ancestors, the Greeks themselves did not set out to found “Western Civilization” itself.

Mesopotamia

While many traditional Western Civilization textbooks start with Greece, this one does not.  That is because civilization is not Greek in its origins.  The most ancient human civilizations arose in the Fertile Crescent, an area stretching from present-day Israel – Palestine through southern Turkey and into Iraq.  Closely related, and lying within the Fertile Crescent, is the region of Mesopotamia, which is the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq.  In these areas, people invented the most crucial technology necessary for the development of civilization: agriculture.  The Mesopotamians also invented other things that are central to civilization, including

• Cities: Note that in English, the very word “civilization” is closely related to the word “civic,” meaning “having to do with cities” as in “civic government” or “civic duty.”  Cities were essential to sophisticated human groups because they allowed specialization: you could have some people concentrate all of their time and energy on tasks like art, building, religious worship, or warfare, not just on farming.
• Bureaucracy: While it seems like a prosaic subject, bureaucracy was and remains the most effective way to organize large groups of people.  Civilizations that developed large and efficient bureaucracies grew larger and lasted longer than those that neglected bureaucracy.  Bureaucracy is, essentially, the substitution of rules in place of individual human decisions.  That process, while often frustrating to individuals caught up in it, does have the effect of creating a more efficient set of processes than can be achieved through arbitrary decision-making.  Historically, bureaucracy was one of the most important “technologies” that early civilizations developed.
• Large-scale warfare: Even before large cities existed, the first towns were built with fortifications to stave off attackers.  It is very likely that the first kings were war leaders allied with priests.
• Mathematics: Without math, there cannot be advanced engineering, and without engineering, there cannot be irrigation, walls, or large buildings.  The ancient Mesopotamians were the first people in the world to develop advanced mathematics in large part because they were also the most sophisticated engineers of the ancient world.
• Astronomy: Just as math is necessary for engineering, astronomy is necessary for a sophisticated calendar.  The ancient Mesopotamians began the process of systematically recording the changing positions of the stars and other heavenly bodies because they needed to be able to track when to plant crops, when to harvest, and when religious rituals had to be carried out.  Among other things, the Mesopotamians were the first to discover the 365 (and a quarter) days of the year and set those days into a fixed calendar.
• Empires: An empire is a political unit comprising many different “peoples,” whether “people” is defined linguistically, religiously, or ethnically.  The Mesopotamians were the first to conquer and rule over many different cities and “peoples” at once.

The Mesopotamians also created systems of writing, of organized religion, and of literature, all of which would go on to have an enormous influence on world history, and in turn, Western Civilization.  Thus, in considering Western Civilization, it would be misleading to start with the Greeks and skip places like Mesopotamia, because those areas were the heartland of civilization in the whole western part of Eurasia.

Greece and Rome

Even if we do not start with the Greeks, we do need to acknowledge their importance.  Alexander the Great was one of the most famous and important military leaders in history, a man who started conquering “the world” when he was eighteen years old.  When he died, his empire fell apart, in part because he did not say which of his generals was to take over after his death.  Nevertheless, the empires he left behind were united in important ways, using Greek as one of their languages, employing Greek architecture in their buildings, putting on plays in the Greek style, and of course, trading with one another.  This period in history was called the Hellenistic Age.  The people who were part of that age were European, Middle Eastern, and North African, people who worshiped both Greek gods and the gods of their own regions, spoke all kinds of different languages, and lived as part of a hybrid culture.  Hellenistic civilization demonstrates the fact that Western Civilization has always been a blend of different peoples, not a single encompassing group or language or religion.

Perhaps the most important empire in the ancient history of Western Civilization was ancient Rome.  Over the course of roughly five centuries, the Romans expanded from the city of Rome in the middle of the Italian peninsula to rule an empire that stretched from Britain to Spain and from North Africa to Persia (present-day Iran).  Through incredible engineering, the hard work of Roman citizens and Roman subjects, and the massive use of slave labor, they built remarkable buildings and created infrastructure like roads and aqueducts that survive to the present day.

The Romans are the ones who give us the idea of Western Civilization being something ongoing – something that had started in the past and continued into the future.  In the case of the Romans, they (sometimes grudgingly) acknowledged Greece as a cultural model; Roman architecture used Greek shapes and forms, the Roman gods were really just the Greek gods given new names (Zeus became Jupiter, Hades became Pluto, etc.), and educated Romans spoke and read Greek so that they could read the works of the great Greek poets, playwrights, and philosophers.  Thus, the Romans deliberately adopted an older set of ideas and considered themselves part of an ongoing civilization that blended Greek and Roman values.  Like the Greeks before them, they also divided civilization itself in a stark binary: there was Greco-Roman culture on the one hand and barbarism on the other, although they made a reluctant exception for Persia at times.

The Romans were largely successful at assimilating the people they conquered.  They united their provinces with the Latin language, which is the ancestor of all of the major languages spoken in Southern Europe today (French, Italian, Spanish, Romanian, etc.), Roman law, which is the ancestor of most forms of law still in use today in Europe, and the Roman form of government.  Along with those factors, the Romans brought Greek and Roman science, learning, and literature to the reaches of their empire.  In many ways, the Romans believed that they were bringing civilization itself everywhere they went, and because they made the connection between Greek civilization and their own, they played a significant role in inventing the idea of Western Civilization as something that was ongoing.

That noted, the Romans did not use the term “Western Civilization” and as their empire expanded, even the connection between Roman identity and Italy itself weakened.  During the period that the empire was at its height, the bulk of the population and wealth was in the east, concentrated in Egypt, Anatolia (the region corresponding to the present-day nation of Turkey), and the Middle East.  This shift to the east culminated in the move of the capital of the empire from the city of Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium, renamed Constantinople by the emperor who ordered the move: Constantine.  Thus, while the Greco-Roman legacy was certainly a major factor in the development of the idea of Western Civilization much later, “Roman” was certainly not the same thing as “western” at the time.

The Middle Ages and Christianity

Another stage in the development of the idea of Western Civilization came about after Rome ceased to exist as a united empire, during the era known as the Middle Ages.  The Middle Ages were the period between the fall of Rome, which happened around 476 CE, and the Renaissance, which started around 1300 CE.  During the Middle Ages, another concept of what lay at the heart of Western Civilization arose, especially among Europeans.  It was not just the connection to Roman and Greek accomplishments, but instead, to religion.  The Roman Empire had started to become Christian in the early fourth century CE when the emperor, Constantine, converted to Christianity.  Many Europeans in the Middle Ages came to believe that, despite the fact that they spoke different languages and had different rulers, they were united as part of “Christendom”: the kingdom of Christ and of Christians.

Christianity obviously played a hugely important role in the history of Western Civilization.  It inspired amazing art and music.  It was at the heart of scholarship and learning for centuries.  It also justified the aggressive expansion of European kingdoms.  Europeans truly believed that members of other religions were infidels (meaning “those who are unfaithful,” those who worshipped the correct God, but in the wrong way, including Jews and Muslims, but also Christians who deviated from official orthodoxy) or pagans (those who worshipped false gods) who should either convert or be exterminated.  For instance, despite the fact that Muslims and Jews worshiped the same God and shared much of the same sacred literature, medieval Europeans had absolutely no qualms about invading Muslim lands and committing horrific atrocities in the name of their religion.  Likewise, medieval anti-Semitism (prejudice and hatred directed against Jews) eventually drove many Jews from Europe itself to take shelter in the kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and North Africa.  Historically it was much safer and more comfortable for Jews to live in places like the predominantly Muslim Ottoman Empire than in most of Christian Europe.

A major irony of the idea that Western Civilization is somehow inherently Christian is that Islam is unquestionably just as “Western.”  Islam’s point of origin, the Arabian Peninsula, is geographically very close to that of both Judaism and Christianity.  Its holy writings are also closely aligned to Jewish and Christian values and thought.  Perhaps most importantly, Islamic kingdoms and empires were part of the networks of trade, scholarship, and exchange that linked together the entire greater Mediterranean region.  Thus, despite the fervor of European crusaders, it would be profoundly misleading to separate Islamic states and cultures from the rest of Western Civilization.

The Renaissance and European Expansion

Perhaps the most crucial development in the idea of Western Civilization in the pre-modern period was the Renaissance.  The idea of the “Middle Ages” was invented by thinkers during the Renaissance, which started around 1300 CE.  The great thinkers and artists of the  Renaissance claimed to be moving away from the ignorance and darkness of the Middle Ages – which they also described as the “dark ages” – and returning to the greatness of the Romans and Greeks.  People like Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Christine de Pizan, and Petrarch proudly connected their work to the work of the Romans and Greeks, claiming that there was an unbroken chain of ideas, virtues, and accomplishments stretching all the way back thousands of years to people like Alexander the Great, Plato, and Socrates.

During the Renaissance, educated people in Europe roughly two thousand years after the life of the Greek philosopher Plato based their own philosophies and outlooks on Plato’s philosophy, as well as that of other Greek thinkers.  The beauty of Renaissance art is directly connected to its inspiration in Roman and Greek art.  The scientific discoveries of the Renaissance were inspired by the same spirit of inquiry that Greek scientists and Roman engineers had cultivated.  Perhaps most importantly, Renaissance thinkers proudly linked their own era to that of the Greeks and Romans, thus strengthening the concept of Western Civilization as an ongoing enterprise.

In the process of reviving the ideas of the Greeks and Romans, Renaissance thinkers created a new program of education: “humanist” education.  Celebrating the inherent goodness and potentialities of humankind, humanistic education saw in the study of classical literature a source of inspiration for not just knowledge but also morality and virtue.  Combining the practical study of languages, history, mathematics, and rhetoric (among other subjects) with the cultivation of an ethical code the humanists traced back to the Greeks, humanistic education ultimately created a curriculum meant to create well-rounded, virtuous individuals.  That program of education remained intact into the twentieth century, with the study of the classics remaining a hallmark of elite education until it began to be displaced by the more specialized disciplinary studies of the modern university system that was born near the end of the nineteenth century.

It was not Renaissance ideas, however, that had the greatest impact on the globe at the time.  Instead, it was European soldiers, colonists, and most consequentially, diseases.  The first people from the Eastern Hemisphere since prehistory to travel to the Western Hemisphere (and remain – an earlier Viking colony did not survive) were European explorers who, entirely by accident, “discovered” the Americas at the end of the fifteenth century CE.  It bears emphasis that the “discovery” of the Americas is a misnomer: millions of people already lived there, as their ancestors had for thousands of years, but geography had left them ill-prepared for the arrival of the newcomers.  With the European colonists came an onslaught of epidemics to which the Native peoples of the Americas had no resistance, and within a few generations the immense majority – perhaps as many as 90% – of Native Americans perished as a result.  The subsequent conquest of the Americas by Europeans and their descendants was thus made vastly easier.  Europeans suddenly had access to an astonishing wealth of land and natural resources, wealth that they extracted in large part by enslaving millions of Native Americans and Africans.

Thanks largely to the European conquest of the Americas and the exploitation of American resources and enslaved people, Europe went from a region of little economic and military power and importance to one of the most formidable in the following centuries.  Following the Spanish and Portuguese conquests of Central and South America, the other major European states embarked on their own imperialistic ventures in the following centuries.  “Trade empires” emerged over the course of the seventeenth century, first and foremost those of the Dutch and English, which established the precedent that profit and territorial control were mutually reinforcing priorities for European states.  Driven by that conjoined motive, European states established huge, and growing, global empires.  By 1800, roughly 35% of the surface of the world was controlled by Europeans or their descendants.

The Modern Era

Most of the world, however, was off limits to large-scale European expansion.  Not only were there prosperous and sophisticated kingdoms in many regions of Africa, but (in an ironic reversal of the impact of European diseases on Americans) African diseases ensured that would-be European explorers and conquerors were initially unable to penetrate beyond the coasts of most of sub-Saharan Africa entirely.  Meanwhile, the enormous and sophisticated empires and kingdoms of China, Japan, Southeast Asia, and South Asia (i.e., India) largely regarded Europeans as incidental trading partners of relatively little importance.  The Middle East was dominated by two powerful and “western” empires of its own: Persia and the Ottoman Empire.

The explosion of European power, one that coincided with the fruition of the idea that Western Civilization was both distinct from and better than other branches of civilization, came as a result of a development in technology: the Industrial Revolution.  Starting in Great Britain in the middle of the eighteenth century, Europeans learned how to exploit fossil fuels in the form of coal to harness hitherto unimaginable amounts of energy.  That energy underwrote a vast and dramatic expansion of European technology, wealth, and military power, this time built on the backs not of outright slaves but of workers paid subsistence wages.

Over the course of the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution underwrote and enabled the transformation of Europe from regional powerhouse to global hegemon.  By the early twentieth century, Europe and the American nations founded by the descendants of Europeans controlled roughly 85% of the globe.  Europeans either forced foreign states to concede to their economic demands and political influence, as in China and the Ottoman Empire, or simply conquered and controlled regions directly, as in South Asia (i.e., India) and Africa.  None of this would have been possible without the technological and energetic revolution wrought by industrialism.

To Europeans and North Americans, however, the reason that they had come to enjoy such wealth and power was not because of a (temporary) monopoly of industrial technology.  Instead, it was the inevitable result of their inherent biological and cultural superiority.  The idea that the human species was divided into biologically distinct races was not entirely invented in the nineteenth century, but it became the predominant outlook and acquired all the trappings of a “science” over the course of the 1800s.  By the year 1900, almost any person of European descent would have claimed to be part of a distinct, superior “race” whose global dominance was simply part of their collective birthright.

That conceit arrived at its zenith in the first half of the twentieth century.  The European powers themselves fell upon one another in the First World War in the name of expanding, or at least preserving, their share of global dominance.  Soon after, the new (related) ideologies of fascism and Nazism put racial superiority at the very center of their worldviews.  The Second World War was the direct result of those ideologies, when racial warfare was unleashed for the first time not just on members of races Europeans had already classified as “inferior” but on European ethnicities that fascists and Nazis now considered inferior races in their own right, most obviously the Jews.  The bloodbath that followed resulted in approximately 55 million deaths, including the 6 million Jewish victims of the Holocaust and at least 25 million citizens of the Soviet Union, another “racial” enemy from the perspective of the Nazis.

Western Civilization Is Reinvented

It was against the backdrop of this descent into what Europeans and Americans frequently called “barbarism” – the old antithesis of the “true” civilization that started with the Greeks – that the history of Western Civilization first came into being as a textbook topic and, soon, a mainstay of college curriculums.  Prominent scholars in the United States, especially historians, came to believe that the best way to defend the elements of civilization with which they most strongly identified, including certain concepts of rationality and political equality, was to describe all of human existence as an ascent from primitive savagery into enlightenment, an ascent that may not have strictly speaking started in Europe, but which they felt enjoyed its greatest success there.  The early proponents of the “Western Civ” concept spoke and wrote explicitly of European civilization as an unbroken ladder of ideas, technologies, and cultural achievements that led to the present.  Along the way, of course, they included the United States as both a product of those European achievements and, in the twentieth century, one of the staunchest defenders of that legacy.

That first generation of historians of Western Civilization succeeded in crafting what was to be the core of history curriculums for most of the twentieth century in American colleges and universities, not to mention high schools.  The narrative in the introduction in this book follows a traditional Western Civilization curriculum’s basic contours, without all of the qualifying remarks: it starts with Greece, goes through Rome, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, then on to the growth in European power leading up to the recent past.  The traditional story, however, made a hard and fast distinction between Western Civilization as the site of progress and the rest of the world (usually referred to as the “Orient,” simply meaning “east,” all the way up until textbooks started changing their terms in the 1980s), which were invariably characterized as lagging behind.  Outside of the West, went the narrative, there was despotism, stagnation, and corruption, so it was almost inevitable that the West would eventually achieve global dominance.

This was, in hindsight, a somewhat surprising conclusion given when the narrative was invented.  The West’s self-understanding as the most “civilized” culture had imploded with the world wars, but the inventors of Western Civilization as a concept were determined to not only rescue its legacy from that implosion but celebrate it as the only major historical legacy of relevance to the present.  In doing so, they reinforced many of the intellectual dividing lines created centuries earlier: there was true civilization opposed by barbarians, there was an ongoing and unbroken legacy of achievement and progress, and most importantly, only people who were born in or descended from people born in Europe had played a significant historical role.  The entire history of most of humankind was not just irrelevant to the narrative of European or American history; it was irrelevant to the history of the modern world for everyone.  In other words, Africans and Asians, to say nothing of the people of the Pacific or Native Americans, could have little of relevance to learn from their own history that was not somehow “obsolete” in the modern era.  And yet, this astonishing conclusion was born from a culture that unleashed the most horrific destruction (self-destruction) ever witnessed by the human species.

The Approach of This Book (with Caveats)

This textbook follows the contours of the basic Western Civilization narrative described above in terms of chronology and, to an extent, geography because it was written to be compatible with most Western Civilization courses as they exist today.  It deliberately breaks, however, from the “triumphalist” narrative that describes Western Civilization as the most successful, rational, and enlightened form of civilization in human history.  It casts a wider geographical view than most traditional Western Civilization textbooks, focusing in many cases on the critical historical role of the Middle East, not just Europe.  It also abandons the pretense that the history of Western Civilization was generally progressive, with the conditions of life and understanding of the natural world of most people improving over time. (as a matter of fact, they did not.)

The purpose of this approach is not to disparage the genuine breakthroughs, accomplishments, and forms of “progress” that did originate in “the West.”  Technologies as diverse and important as the steam engine and antibiotics originated in the West.  Major intellectual and ideological movements calling for religious toleration, equality before the law, and feminism all came into being in the West.  For better and for worse, the West was also the point of origin of true globalization (starting with the European contact with the Americas, as noted above).  It would be as misleading to dismiss the history of Western Civilization as unimportant as it is to claim that only the history of Western Civilization is important.

Thus, this textbook attempts to present a balanced account of major events that occurred in the West over approximately the last 10,000 years.  “Balance” is in the eye of the reader, however, so the account will not be satisfactory to many.  The purpose of this introduction is to make explicit the background and the framework that informed the writing of the book, and the author chooses to release it as an Open Education Resource in the knowledge that many others will have the opportunity to modify it as they see fit.

Finally, a note on the kind of history this textbook covers is in order.  For the sake of clarity and manageability, historians distinguish between different areas of historical study: political, intellectual, military, cultural, artistic, social, and so on.  Historians have made enormous strides in the last sixty years in addressing various areas that were traditionally neglected, most importantly in considering the histories of the people who were not in power, including the common people of various epochs, women for almost all of history, and slaves and servants.  The old adage that “history is written by the winners” is simply untrue – history has left behind mountains of evidence about the lives of those who had access to less personal autonomy than did social elites.  Those elites did much to author some of the most familiar historical narratives, but those traditional narratives have been under sustained critique for several decades.

This textbook tries to address at least some of those histories, but here it will be found wanting by many.  Given the vast breadth of history covered in its chapters, the bulk of the consideration is on “high level” political history, charting a chronological framework of major states, political events, and political changes.  There are two reasons for that approach.  First, the history of politics lends itself to a history of events linked together by causality: first something happened, and then something else happened because of it.  In turn, there is a fundamental coherence and simplicity to textbook narratives of political history (one that infuriates many professional historians, who are trained to identify and study complexity).  Political history can thus serve as an accessible starting place for newcomers to the study of history, providing a relatively easy-to-follow chronological framework.

The other, related, reason for the political framing of this textbook is that history has long since declined as a subject central to education from the elementary through high school levels in many parts of the United States.  It is no longer possible to assume that anyone who has completed high school already has some idea of major (measured by their impact at the time and since) events of the past.  This textbook attempts to use political history as, again, a starting point in considering events, people, movements, and ideas that changed the world at the time and continue to exert an influence in the present.

To be clear, not all of what follows has to do with politics in so many words.  Considerable attention is also given to intellectual, economic, and to an extent, religious history.  Social and cultural history are covered in less detail, both for reasons of space and the simple fact that the author was trained as an intellectual historian interested in political theory.  These, hopefully, are areas that will be addressed in future revisions.

Original Version: March 2019

Notes on the Second Edition (“Version 2.5”)

The second edition of this textbook attempts to redress some of the “missing pieces” noted in the conclusion of the introduction above.  First, greater emphasis is placed on the history of the Middle East, especially in the period after the collapse of the political authority of the Abbasid Caliphate in the ninth century CE.  The textbook now addresses the histories of Persia (Iran) and the Ottoman Empire in considerable detail, emphasizing both their own political, religious, and economic developments and their respective relationships with other cultures.  Second, much greater focus is given to the history of gender roles and to women’s history.

From the perspective of the author, the new material on the Middle East integrates naturally with the narrative because it remains focused mostly on political history.  The material on gender and women’s history requires a shift in the overall approach of the textbook in that women were almost entirely excluded from traditional “high-level” political histories precisely because so few women were ever in positions of political authority until the recent past.  The shift in focus to include more women’s history necessarily entails greater emphasis not just on gender roles but on the social history of everyday life, stepping away at times from the political history framework of the volumes as a whole.  The result is a broader and more robust historical account than that of the earlier edition, although the overarching narrative is still driven by political developments.

As of the autumn of 2021, the first volume of this textbook is now in its “Version 2.5,” preserving the entire second edition with a few key changes.  Wendy Fall, at the time of this release a Ph.D. candidate in literature at Marquette University, was kind enough to volunteer to edit the entire first volume.  She corrected numerous grammatical issues and streamlined the phrasing considerably.  Wendy also provided additional content, especially on literary history, which has enriched the intellectual and cultural histories covered in the volume.  My sincere thanks to Wendy for her efforts!

Finally, a note on grammatical conventions: in keeping with most American English approaches, the writing errs on the side of capitalizing proper nouns.  For example, terms like “the Church” when referring to the Catholic Church in its institutional presence, specific regions like “Western Europe,” and historical eras like “the Middle Ages” and “the Enlightenment” are all capitalized. Diacritical marks are kept when possible in original spellings, as in the term “Führer” when discussing Adolf Hitler.  Herculean efforts have gone into reducing the number of semicolons throughout the text, to little avail.

Christopher Brooks, Ph.D.

Faculty Member in History, Portland Community College

Second Edition (Version 2.5): September 2021