2.2 Historical Development Patterns

Europe didn’t become a center for world economics with high standards of living by accident. Historical events in global development have favored this realm because of its physical geography and cultural factors. In southern Europe, the Greeks provided ideas, philosophy, and organization. Greek thinkers promoted the concept of democracy. The Romans carried the concept of empire to new levels. From about 150 BCE to 475 CE, the Romans controlled a large portion of Europe and North Africa. The Roman Empire introduced a common infrastructure to Europe. The Romans connected their world by building roads, bridges, aqueducts, and port facilities. They understood how to rule an empire. By taking advantage of the best opportunities in each region they controlled, they encouraged the best and most-skilled artisans to focus on what they did best. This created the specialization of goods and a market economy. No longer did every region have to make everything for themselves. They could sell in the market what they produced and purchase products made by others, which would be of higher quality than what they could make at home. Regions that specialized in certain goods due to local resources or specialty skills could transport those goods to markets long distances away. The Roman Empire connected southern Europe and North Africa.

The Vikings of Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, and Denmark; 900–1200 CE) are often inaccurately described as rogue bands of armed warriors who pillaged and plundered northern Europe. Though they were fierce warriors in battle, they were actually farmers, skilled craftsmen, and active traders. They developed trade routes throughout the North. Using their seafaring knowledge and skills, the Vikings used Europe’s waterways for transportation. They developed colonies in Iceland, Greenland, and what is present-day Canada. Their longships were renowned for their versatility and provided an advantage on the sea. The Vikings made advances deep into Europe—all the way to Constantinople in modern-day Turkey. The Byzantine Empire employed Scandinavian Vikings as mercenaries.

In a general sense, the regions to the west of Scandinavia—such as Iceland, Scotland, Ireland, and Greenland—were targeted by the Norwegian Vikings. Southern regions such as England and France were more often destinations of the Danish Vikings. Russia and areas of Eastern Europe were standard trading grounds for the Swedish Vikings, though the different Viking groups could occasionally be found in the same destinations. The present-day Scandinavian countries were established after the main Viking period. The Vikings connected northern Europe with trade for over 300 years in the Early Middle Ages.

Colonialism

Beginning in the 1300s, the Renaissance  prompted activity in Europe that changed the world. This cultural, artistic, and intellectual movement was sparked by the rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman art and ideas (made possible by better access to classical manuscripts), and emphasized humanism, the study of humanity (including art, biology, culture, society, etc.) for its own sake. One of the results of this activity was a new interest in the exploration of the world. In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator employed by the rulers of an expansionist and newly united Spain, and his three ships crossed the Atlantic to land on the shores of the Americas. This event symbolized the beginning of the era of European colonialism, which diminished only after World War II. Colonialism’s effects remain in the colonies or protectorates that European countries still possess. Colonialism was fueled by the economic concept of mercantilism, a theory that inspired governments to try to control trade, promoting the acquisition of wealth through the quick gain of gold, silver, or commercial goods from their colonies.

Colonialism included the development of colonies outside the home country, usually for the expansion of imperial power and the exploitation of material gain. The building of larger ships and an understanding of sea travel allowed an exchange of new goods and ideas between continents. North and South America were opened up to European explorers for colonial expansion. European colonialism brought newfound wealth from the colonies back to Europe. All the regions of the world outside Europe were targeted for colonialism. Africa was divided up, “Latin” America was created, and Asia became a target for resources and trade. The handful of powerful countries along the Atlantic coast of Europe began a drive to dominate the world. If you live in the Western Hemisphere, both the language you speak and the borders of your country were most likely products of European colonialism.

In 1492, Columbus began bringing the Eastern and Western Hemispheres together through a process of swapping Old and New World plants and animals along with stowaway pests, weeds, and germs that has been called the “Columbian Exchange.” As a result, both the Old and New Worlds were forever changed.

The Agrarian Revolution

The post-Renaissance era introduced a number of agricultural changes that impacted European food production. Before this time, most agricultural methods were primitive and labor-intensive, but new technologies were introduced that greatly enhanced agricultural production. Plows, seeders, and harvesting technologies were introduced, and land reform and land ownership transitioned to adapt to the changing times. These innovations supported the expanding port cities that created urban markets for agricultural surpluses. Colonial ships returned from the colonies with new foods, such as the potato from South America, that revolutionized crop production. This era’s agricultural advancements are often referred to as the Agrarian Revolution. The Agrarian Revolution led to industrial developments such as the steam tractor and steel implements that further advanced agricultural production worldwide.

The Industrial Revolution

Great Britain, being an island country, developed the world’s largest navy and took control of the seas in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Their colonial reach extended from North America to Australia. The Industrial Revolution, initiated in northern England in the late 1700s, introduced an industrial period that changed how humans produced products. The shift to coal for energy, the use of the steam engine for power, the smelting of iron, and the concept of mass production changed how goods were produced, with far-reaching social and economic consequences for society.

The development of the steam-powered engine provided a mobile power source. Waterwheels powered by steep-flowing rivers or streams were an early source of power. With coal for fuel and steam for power, the engines of industry moved full speed ahead. Power looms converted cotton and wool thread into cloth. Powered by a steam engine, a power loom could operate twenty-four hours a day and could be located anywhere. Industrialization with cheap labor and adequate raw materials brought enormous wealth to the industrial leaders and their home countries.

With the mass production of goods and advancements in technology, fewer people were needed on farms, and more workers were needed in factories. There was a large rural-to-urban shift in the human population. Europe experienced the development of its major cities during this period. In Britain, urban dwellers grew from 9 to 62% of the population from 1800 to 1900, and this grew to 90% by 2010. Europe, as a whole, is approximately 75% urban, compared to 80% in the USA.

The Industrial Revolution, which started in northern England’s Pennine mountain chain, rippled through Europe and across the Atlantic to the United States. The majority of countries in Europe are currently in the most advanced stage of economic development, with small families and a fertility rate below the replacement level. Their incomes, based on a consumer economy, are generally at high levels.

As Europe industrialized and progressed through the stages of the index of economic development, certain core regions reached the postindustrial stages earlier than others. Western Europe established a core industrial region with an extended periphery. The postindustrial activity in this core area continues today in four main centers of innovation: (1) Stuttgart in southern Germany, (2) Lyon in southeastern France, (3) Milan in northern Italy, and (4) Barcelona in northeastern Spain. These four industrial centers have been referred to by some as the Four Motors of Europe because they promote business and industry for the European community. The European core region extends as far as Stockholm (Sweden) in the north to Barcelona in the south.

Primate Cities, Small Families, and Immigration

European urban development centered on port cities that had industrial activity. Ships could import raw materials, factories could manufacture goods, and the ships could export products. A central business district (CBD) developed around these activities. Since walking was the main transportation mode, all business activities had to be located in the same vicinity. Banks, retail shops, food markets, and residential dwellings had to be close to the factories and port facilities. Modern cities emerged from this industrialization process, and Europe is one of the more urban realms on the planet.

Many European countries have one primate city, a city that is more than twice as large as their second city and exceptionally expressive of national feeling and heritage. A primate city represents a country’s persona and often is symbolic of the country’s heritage and character. Financial and business centers in cities such as London, Rome, or Paris support the industrial activity that led to their development as primate cities. Most primate cities are ports or are located on a major river.  Not all are national capitals.

Because Europe’s industrialization is so advanced, and this is generally accompanied by declining birth rates, various countries in Europe have reached negative population growth. Family size is approximately 1.4 children across Europe, and only 1.2 in Spain and Italy – well below the replacement rate of approximately 2.1. Small families do not provide enough young people to cover the available entry-level service jobs. As a core economic global power with a shortage of such labor, Europe has become a magnet for immigrants from poorer peripheral countries.

This has led to increasing tension between the longstanding European cultural groups and immigrants from developing countries, who often speak non-European languages or follow religions other than Christianity. The main religion of immigrants from North Africa or the Middle East is Islam, which is the fastest-growing religion in Europe.

Nation-States and Devolution

The agrarian revolution and the Industrial Revolution were powerful movements that altered human activity in many ways. New innovations in food production and the manufacturing of products transformed Europe, which in turn impacted the rest of the world. Even before the agrarian revolution was under way, other transitions in European political currents were developing. The political revolution that transformed Europe was a result of diverse actions that focused on ending continual warfare for the control of territory and introducing peaceful agreements that recognized sovereignty of territory ruled by representative government structures. Various treaties and revolutions continued to shift the power from dictators and monarchs to the general populace. The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 and those that followed helped establish a sense of peace and stability for Central Europe, which had been dominated by the Holy Roman Empire and competing powers. The Holy Roman Empire, which was centered on the German states of Central Europe from 962 to 1806, should not be confused with the Roman Empire, which was based in Rome and ended centuries earlier. The French Revolution (1789–95) was an example of the political transformation taking place across Europe to establish democratic processes for governance.

The political revolution laid the groundwork for a sense of nationalism that transformed Europe into nation-states. The term nation refers to a homogeneous group of people with a common heritage, language, religion, or political ambition. The term state refers to the government. When nations and states come together, there is a true nation-state, wherein most citizens share a common heritage and a united government.

European countries have progressed to the point where the concept of forming or remaining a nation-state is a driving force in many political sectors. Most Europeans want to be members of a nation-state, where everyone is alike and shares the same culture, heritage, and government. For example, there is an Italy for Italians, a united Germany for Germans, and a France for the French. However, this ideal is difficult to attain: though the political borders of many European countries resemble nation-states, there is too much diversity within the nations to consider the ideal of creating a nation-state a true reality.

Various ethnic populations in Europe currently residing within larger countries, desire to become independent nation-states. The term devolution refers to the process whereby regions or people within a state demand independence. For example, Scotland and Wales seek to devolve from the United Kingdom. The Basque region between Spain and France would like to have its own nation-state. The former Yugoslavia broke up into seven smaller nation-states. Various other minority groups in Europe seek similar arrangements. Thus both cohesive cultural forces and divisive cultural forces are active in the European community.

Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces

Cultural forces continually apply pressure on a country. Some of these cultural forces pull the nation together (centripetal forces), and others pull it apart (centrifugal forces). Primary sources of these cultural forces include religion, language, ethnicity, politics, and economic conditions.

When there is division, conflict, or confrontation, the centrifugal forces are at play. When unification, agreement, or nationalism are being exercised, centripetal forces are evident. The subjects that tie a country together can also be those that divide it. Ethnic unity can be a positive force, while ethnic division and conflict can be divisive forces. If centrifugal forces become strong, the result may be outright civil war, as was seen in the United States in the 1860s. Unity can also be evident through national struggles, such as the nationalism displayed immediately after the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States. After the attacks, an outpouring of goodwill and agreement strengthened the bonds within the United States.

To understand our world, it is helpful to understand the cultural forces that are active in any one location. Disagreement, inequity, or injustice related to the cultural factors of ethnicity, religion, language, and economics of a region or country is the cause of most conflicts. The strong personalities of leaders can similarly prove to be powerful forces that either divide or unite a nation. An example of cultural forces in conflict in Europe can be found in Northern Ireland, where political forces use religious differences as a means of social division.

Religion and Language in Europe

Europe has historically been considered a Christian realm. The three main branches of Christianity in Europe are Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox. Rome has been the geographical base for the Roman Catholic Church since the Roman Empire. Operating on the Romance language Latin, the Catholic Church has provided southern Europe with a common religion for over 1,500 years.

The Roman Catholic Church split when Constantinople, now called Istanbul, gained prominence. The Eastern Orthodox Church launched itself as the primary organization in the Slavic lands of Eastern Europe and Russia. The reformation of the fourteenth century, led by people such as Martin Luther, brought about the Protestant Reformation and a break with the Roman Catholic Church. Protestant churches have dominated northern Europe to this day.