2.1 What is a Theory?
Brandon Hamann
A theory is an explanation of an observed occurrence in an environment. A theory asks the fundamental questions—Who, What, When, Where, How, and Why—and tries to answer them. These theories should do their best to explain the world according to the facts that are present to them at the time (Paternoster & Bachman, 2001). Theories can also be used to predict outcomes by formulating ideas for experimentation and research to either prove or disprove them.
In the world of Criminology, these theories are used to explain the causes of criminal behavior, both on an individual level (micro) and a group level (macro). They attempt to explain why people commit crimes and identify risk factors for committing a crime and can focus on how certain laws are created and enforced. Micro-level explanations focus on causation instances from a personal perspective:
“He/She/They committed the crime of robbery because of a lack of parental control at home.”
Macro-level explanations focus on causation instances from a group perspective:
“The crime rate in New Orleans is increasing because city leaders are ineffective in providing adequate leadership initiatives to fight the growing problems plaguing the city.”
But theories need to have a starting point. They can’t just come out of thin air. They must have a solid foundation: a concept. A concept is the foundation of any theory (Fedorek, 2019). It is imperative that a theory have a clearly defined concept before the process can begin. In Criminology, these concepts include deviance, delinquency, and even crime itself (Fedorek, 2019). If a theory does not have a clearly defined concept, it cannot be evaluated. To explain, we might try to rationalize a specific increase in convenience store robberies in Shreveport, Louisiana on an inability of the offenders to control their own behavior. This lack of “self-control” now becomes another concept that can now be measured along with the newly defined “robbery” concept.
Now we have our concepts defined: robbery and self-control. Once they are defined, they need to be measured in a process called Operationalization. Operationalization will determine how best to measure those concepts, now called variables (Fedorek, 2019). Self-control can be measured in a variety of ways. One such way is to evaluate a person’s ability to resist temptation. A good way is through the Cupcake Test. Can you think of any other ways to assess self-control? What other explanations could there be for why a person could be lacking in their own self-control enough to commit a crime of robbery? Once the relationship between variables is tested, they have to be verified to not be affected by any other outside influences. When two variables are affected by a third, this is called spuriousness. We know that convenience stores sell many products that can have addictive properties (tobacco, alcohol, high sugar content junk foods, etc.).
Once the variables are determined and the concepts are defined, our theory becomes more refined. We can now say within a greater reasonable degree of probability that the increase in crime in Shreveport, Louisiana is due to the relationship between addictive products being sold and the lack of self-control of the offenders.
But this is still a theory. How do we know if it is right or wrong? It has to be tested.
Theory Exercise
We all have an opinion on just about everything. We base those opinions on our personal experiences throughout our own perspectives. We gather information by whichever means are convenient to us, and we form our opinions based on our observations. And we believe in our heart of hearts that we are right in our convictions of what we know because we have limited experience. But there is a difference between having an opinion and being an expert. And in the world of Criminology, it’s not what you know, it’s what you can prove with empirical fact – evidence based on observable experimentation. That means forming a proper theory, establishing a process for testing that theory, observing and gathering data through the proper scientific experimentation, analyzing and interpreting that data objectively, and reporting on what the data says regardless of whether or not it confirms the theory or disproves it outright.
A theory has to be able to be proven false (Fedorek, 2019). It is the research that will determine the reliability and the validity of the theory, not the other way around. Once the research is completed, the theory can be modified as many times as needed in accordance with the results of the research. The more research is conducted on a theory, and the more a theory is validated, the more reliable it becomes across the field of study it is referencing. If a theory cannot be proven false, it is validated, but that does not mean that questions stop being asked or that research stops being conducted.
For example, “Darwin’s theory of evolution has yet to be falsified. There are numerous unanswered questions, but as time goes by, scientists are discovering more and more evidence to support the theory” (Fedorek, 2019, p. 159).
There are experiences in our lives that are completely within our control in how they influence our opinion and shape our perspective. There are also those experiences that we have absolutely zero control over that affect us as equally if not more so in our personal journey. We don’t get to choose our parents, or our siblings. We don’t get to choose where we live or how we dress for the first few years of our lives. These experiences shape us into who we will become later in life and how we will form our own opinions based on these perspective-building events. What are some other variables that you can think of that are affecting your ability to form an opinion? Are they based on empirical facts, or just “facts” as best as you can tell?
Take a few moments and think about it. Then have a class discussion about your findings. Pay close attention to those experiences that are similar to your own, but also pay even more attention to those that are not.
an explanation of an observed occurrence in an environment.
focus on causation instances from a personal perspective.
focus on causation explanations from a group perspective.
the foundation of a theory.
the process by which concept variables are measured.
when a third variable affects the relationship of two other variables.
evidence based on observable experimentation.